
P^RFSPOHD^ 






■/ 



I 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Sh.elfL,#>2,4 



UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 



PRACTICAL 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



AND 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE; 



V " \ 



FOK USTC IN 



BUSINESS COLLEGES, NORMAL AND HIGH 

SCHOOLS, AND ADVANCED CLASSES 

IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 




1888 



\ 









T 3> 






Copyright, 1887, 

BY 

Wtlliams & Rogers. 



E. K ANDREWS, PKINTEK AND BOOKIiTNDEIf . 
KOOHESTEK. X. V. 



PREFACE. 



This book is designed to afford such knowledge of the construction of the English 
language as will render the pupil's utterances, whether vocal or written, practically 
faultless ; and also to provide him important aid in securing knowledge of, and 
facility in conducting business correspondence. 

All pupils in the higher grades of schools have considerable familiarity with the 
construction of the language — many a critical knowledge ; yet nearly all are 
habitually given to mistakes in its use which do injustice to the training they have 
received, and which fix upon them a character for ignorance of simple yet important 
facts, with which their education was designed to render them familiar. Such 
lapses, while very conspicuous, are less in number than the casual observer would 
suppose, even in the most illiterate, as the vocabulary and set expressions of every 
person are limited. The correction of a few errors in the most ignorant person's use 
of the language would virtually correct his speech. 

It is not claimed that either subject has been exhausted, as the mission of the 
book is to teach only those features of grammar that are of the greatest importance, 
and which may be acquired within a reasonable period of time; and to afford such 
hints regarding the manner of conducting correspondence as will, if practiced, result 
in creditable business letters. 



INDEX 



Adjectives, 2, 6, 13, 17, 41, 42, 43 

Adverbs, 2, 6, 18-19, 43,44, 50, 63, 65 

Analysis, 1 , 4, 5, 66-68 

Antecedent, 11, 13, 14, 16, 49, 50 

Apposition, 47 

Attribute, 2, 20, 51 

Auxiliary, . 22, 23, 25, 57 

Business Correspondence, 69-89 

Capitals, 36-37 

Case, 6, 10. 11, 47, 48, 49 

Clause, 1. 19, 34, 46, 65 

Colon, 34,35 

Comma, 32,33 

Comparison, 17, 18, 41 

Conjugation, 21, 22, 23-26 

Conjunction, 2, 6, 29, 46,47. 64,65 

Construction, 5. 10. 41-57, 63-65 

Dash , 36 

Diction, 40, 41 

Elements, 1, 2, 5 

Exercises for Correction, 14, 15, 16, 18, 27, 

28, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54 

Exclamation , 35 

Explanatory, 11 

Gender, 6, 9, 10, 15, 49 

Grammar, 1 

Harmony, 65 

Hyphen, 36 

Infinitives 21, 22, 23, 48, 54,55 



PAGK. 

Interjection, 30, 47 

Interrogation, 35 

Miscellaneous Examples for Correction, _58-63 

Mode, 21, 23-27, 57 

Modification, 6 

Noun 6-11, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54 

Number 6-9, 14. 15, 19, 27, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53 

Object, 11, 28, 48, 54, 56 

Observations 42. 46, 51, 54, 55 

Parsing, 31 

Participle 6. 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 43, 53 

Period ' 35 

Person,_. 7, 9, 12, 19, 49, 50, 52 

Perspicuity, 63, 64 

Phrases, 3, 4, 32, 33, 43, 46 

Predicate 6.7 

Preposition, 6, 28, 29, 44, 45 

Pronoun 6, 10, 11-16. 47-50, 51, 53, 54, 64 

Proposition 1, 3 

Questions, 30 

Rules, 7, 14, 27, 32-36, 41-55 

Sentence 1-5, 27, 28, 41, 63-65 

Strength , 64 

Style, '. 39 

Subject 1, 5, 13, 27, 47, 48, 52,53, 64 

Subjunctive, 55 

Synopsis 21, 26,27 

Verb, 6, 19-28, 47, 48, 50,51, 52-57 

Word 1, 40,41 



LESSON I. 



Language is the expression of thought by means of words, and may be either 
spoken or written. 

English Grammar is the science which teaches how to speak and write the English 
Language correctly. 

The Sentence. 

A word is the expression of an idea. 

A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 

A proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. 

A sentence may consist of one proposition or of a combination of two or more 
propositions. 

A phrase is a group of words forming a single expression, but not constituting 
-a proposition. 

A clanse is one of two or more united propositions. 

The analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts or elements. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

Example. — Trees grow. This is a sentence because it expresses a thought. Of 
Avhat is something thought ? Trees. Which word tells what is thought ? Grow. 

Lions roar. Corn grows. Stars have disappeared. Sirius has risen. Napoleon 
surrendered. Planets have been discovered. Palaces shall crumble. Monuments 
.are built. 

In every sentence there are two parts: the subject and the, predicate. 

The subject of a sentence is that of which something is said. 

The predicate of a sentence is that which is said of the subject. 

Principal Elements. 

The principal elements of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. 
The snbject may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. 

Ex. — Winter is coming. B is a letter. To cheat is wrong. Carelessness in the 
use of money is a vice. 

The predicate consists of a verb with or without adjuncts. 

Ex. — Rain falls. To be contented is to be happy. He studies that he may learn. 

The subject of a proposition is either simple or compound. 

The subject is simple when something is affirmed of only one thing; as, Water 
moves. 

The subject is compound when something is affirmed of two or more things; 
as, Wisdom and truth must prevail. Ohio and Iowa are states. 

The predicate of a proposition is either simple or compound. A simple 
predicate makes but one affirmation of the subject; as, Men die. " God is love." 



*J PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A compound predicate makes two or more affirmations of the subject : as,. 
Animals eat and sleep. Birds walk, fly and hop. 

Write sentences illustrating the definitions given above. 

Note. — The subject-nominative, with its modifiers, is called the entire subject; the predicate-verb, 
with its modifiers, the entire predicate. 

Modifying Elements. 

The modifying elements of a sentence are adjective elements, adverbial 
elements, objective elements, independent elements, and connecting elements. 
These elements may be words, phrases, or clauses. 

Whatever modifies a noun ox pronoun is an adjectiTe element. 
Ex. — TJie diligent scholar improves. A flock of birds was in sight. The house 
which stood on the corner burned down. The sky is cloudless. 

Whatever modifies a verb, adjective, or an adverb, is an adverbial element. 
Ex. — The house was sold yesterday. The house was sold to pay the owners debts- 
He studies that he may learn. She is very proud. 

Whatever is the object of a verb or a, preposition is an objective element. 
Ex. — The soil produces corn. He knows that you are diligent. I did not heai~ 
of it in time. 

The connecting elements are the conjunctions, the prepositions, some adverbs, 
and the relative pronouns. 

The independent element may be a noun or pronoun used independently; or it 
may be an interjection; or it may be something that represents an entire sentence. 

Ex. — My friend, you are not wise. He failing, who shall meet success ? 0! 
that they were wise. 

A word, phrase, or clause, used in the predicate, but relating to the subject, is 
called the attribute. 

Ex. — The man is honest. Milton is the sublimest of poets. My impression is, 
that you will succeed. 

The verb be, with its different forms, am, is, are, was, were, etc., when used to 
connect the subject and its attribute, is called the copula. 

Ex. — The world is beautiful. I am weary. He ivas rich. 



LESSON II. 



Classification of Sentences. 
Sentences are divided with respect to use, into four classes : declarative, inter- 
rogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 

A declarative sentence is used to affirm, or to deny. 
Ex. — Men walk. Fish do not walk. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6 

An interrogative sentence is vised to ask a question. 

Ex. — Are you sorry? Where do you live? 

An imperative sentence is used to express a command, or an entreaty. 

Ex. — Know thyself. Give me a penny. Do not rob me. 

An exclamatory sentence is used in exclamation, or to express strong emotion. 

Ex. — Oh, how sorry I am! Alas! I shall perish! 

Tell to which class each of the following sentences belongs : The day is calm. 
How many pecks in a bushel ? Write rapidly. How careless you are ! Where is 
Australia? How bright the moon is ! Bring forth the prisoners. "The Lord is 
my helper." 

Write twelve sentences illustrating these four classes. 

Sentences are divided with respect to form, into three classes: simple, complex, 
and compound. 

A simple sentence consists of but one proposition. 
Ex. — Stars shine. Who comes here ? Move slowly. 

A complex sentence consists of a principal proposition, either itself, or some part 
of itself, modified by a subordinate proposition. 

Ex. — Leaves fall when autumn comes. He who is diligent, will win the race. 
I hear that you have bought a fine residence. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more propositions, joined together by 
coordinate connectives. 

Ex. — Summer comes and fruit ripens. "I go, but I return." 

Obs. 1. — Propositions composing complex, or compound sentences, are called 
clauses or members. 

Obs. 2. — The propositions composing compound, or complex sentences, may 
themselves be compound or complex. 

Obs. 3. — Relative pronouns, subordinate conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs, 
are used to connect the dependent clauses of complex sentences to the principal 
clause, and to each other when they themselves are complex. 

Obs. 4. — Sometimes the connectives are omitted. 

Ex. — "Talent is power, tact is skill." 

Write three simple, three complex, and three compound sentences. 

Propositions are either principal or subordinate. 

A principal proposition is one which makes complete sense when standing 
alone. 

A subordinate proposition is one which must be connected with another 
proposition to make complete sense. 

Ex. — The man that does no good does harm. In this sentence, "The man does 
harm," is the principal proposition, for it makes complete sense when standing- 
alone. "That does no good," is the subordinate proposition, modifying man. 

Phrases are either simple, complex, or compound. 

A simple phrase is one unconnected with any other; as, in the mind. 



4 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A complex phrase is one that contains a phrase, or a clause, as an adjunct of 

its principal part: as. "in the varieties of life." 

A compound phrase is one composed of two or more coordinate phrases; as, 
"stooping down and looking in." 

A phrase which is introduced hy a preposition, is called a prepositional phrase; 
as, of a truth. 

A phrase, the principal part of which is a verb in the infinitive mood, is n 
infinitive phrase; as, to do good. 

A phrase, the principal part of which is a participle, is a participial phrase; as, 
a measure founded on justice. 

A phrase may be used as a subject, object, or attribute, or it may be an adverbial 
or an adjective modifier, or it may be independent. 



LESSON III. 



Analysis of Sentences. 
Examples. — Washington captured Cornwallis. 

This is a sentence; declarative; simple (why?). Washington is the subject; 
captured is the predicate verb, and is modified by Cornioallis, an objective element. 

What did you find ? 

This is a sentence ; interrogative ; simple ( why ? ). You is the subject ; did 
find is the predicate verb ( why ? ). The predicate verb is modified by ivhat, an 
objective element. 

Bring me flowers. 

This is a sentence; imperative; simple (why ? ). Thou or you, understood is the 
subject; bring is the predicate verb (why?). The predicate verb is modified by 
flowers, a direct objective, and by me, an indirect objective element. 

They have chosen Garfield president. 

This is a sentence ; declarative ; simple ( why ? ). They is the subject ; have 
chosen is the predicate verb ( why ?). The predicate verb is modified by Garfield, 
an objective element, and Garfield is modified by president, an adjective element, 
denoting office. 

He read the books. Students study astronomy. They rowed the boat. Obey 
the laws. Brokers sell stocks. We elected him moderator. I gave him an apple. 
Whom did you see? 

Ex. — The boat glides smoothly. 

This is a sentence; declarative; simple ( why ? j. Boat is the subject nominative; 
glides is the predicate verb. The subject nominative is modified by the. an adjective 
element; the predicate verb is modified by smoothly, an adverbial element. 

The ladies sing sweetly. Eva ran rapidly. I shall surely oppose you. Is the 
mountain very beautiful ? Promptly give him your attention. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. O 

Ex. — William is strictly honest. 

This is a sentence; declarative; simple (why?). William is the subject; is is 
the predicate verb (or copula) ; honest is the attribute (why ?). The attribute is 
modified by strictly, an adverbial element. 

Large trees are plenty. 

This is a sentence ; declarative ; simple. Trees is the subject nominative ; are 
plenty is the predicate (why?). The subject nominative is modified by large, an 
adjective element. Are is the copula (why ?) ; plenty is the attribute. 

The lion broke the boy's arm. 

Lion is the subject nominative, modified by the, an adjective element. Broke, 
the predicate verb, is modified by arm, an objective element. Arm is modified by 
boy's, an adjective element. 

I wrote a long letter. Many hands make quick work. Man's necessity is God"s 
opportunity. The summer breezes blow soft and cool. The old man, laughing, 
said "Yes." 

Analyze the following sentences: 

(1.) Compound subjects. He and /went to London. Wisdom, judgment, 
prudence and firmness were his joredominant traits. To profess and to possess are 
often two different things. Education and energy have accomplished wonders. 

(2.) Compound predicates. What nothing earthly giv,es or can destroy. 
Education expands and elevates the mind. He rose, reigned, and fell. 

(3.) Compound objective elements. "He had a good mind, a sound 
judgment, and a lively imagination." Learn to labor and to wait. God loves you 
and me. 

(4.) Compound adjective elements. He was a good, faithful, and generous 
man. I am not the advocate of indolence and improvidence. Napoleon was shrewd 
and far-sighted. He is not angry, but excited. 

(5.) Compound adverbial elements. "Man is, fearfully and wonderfully 
made." The soldiers marched sloioly and sadly. The aeronaut went up swiftly and 
down rapidly. The journey was accomplished speedily, yet pleasantly. The work 
was done with profit and pleasure. 

Obs. — Compound and complex sentences should be separated into their members, 
or clauses, in analysis, and each of these treated as a simple sentence. 

( 6.) Compound sentences. William went to Paris and Henry staid at home. 
Gen. Grant pressed forward and Gen. Lee surrendered. 

(7.) Complex sentences. The hand that governs in April, governs in Janu- 
ary. I venerate the man whose heart is warm. I now know why you deceived me. 
Come as the winds come, when navies are stranded. 

Note — The student should not pass beyond this lesson imtil he has fully mastered all the different 
kinds of elements and sentences mentioned in it. 

Exercises in Construction. 

Write five sentences each containing an objective element. 
Write five sentences each containing an adjective element. 
Write five sentences each containing an adverbial element. 
Write five compound sentences. 
Write five complex sentences. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON TV. 



PAETS OF SPEECH. 
There are nine classes of words or parts of speech in the English Language: 

NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, 

and participles. 

The noun, pronoun, verb, and some adjectives and adverbs, are inflected. 

Nouns. 

A liouil is the name of any person, place, or thing. Illustrate. 

Nouns are of two kinds; proper and common. 

A proper noun is a name applied to a person, or to an individual object. 
Illustrate. 

A common noun is a name applied to each of a class of objects. Illustrate. 

The principal office of nouns is to name the thing of which we affirm something. 

Any word; syllable, letter, or symbol, may be used as a noun; as, Yore is a 
pronoun. Con is a prefix. B is a consonant. . is a period. 

Participles,, when used as nouns, may be called verbal nouns. Stealing is a 
crime. He was convicted of bribing. Such words are parsed and analyzed as nouns, 
yet retain the governing power of the verb, from which they are derived. 

A collective noun is a name denoting in the singular form more than one object 
of the same kind; as, cotencil, meeting, committee, family. 

An abstract noun denotes attributes ; as, virtue, wisdom, whiteness, indolence, 
ambition, goodness. 

Words from other parts of speech, also phrases and clauses, are sometimes used 
as nouns. 



LESSON V. 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Number. 

Modifications or inflections of the parts of speech are changes in their form, 
meaning, and use. 

Nouns and pronouns have number, person, gender, and case. 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing, or 
more than one. 

The singular number denotes one thing. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7 

The plural number denotes more than one thing. 

Number Forms. 

The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding " s " to the singular. 
When the singular ends in a sound that cannot be united with that of "s," "es" 
Is added to form another syllable; as, topaz, topazes; fox, foxes; match, matches. 

Remark. — Such words as horse, niche, and cage, drop the final e when es is added. 

Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represent 
-sounds that cannot he united with the sound of "s" : Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, 
box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge horse, lash, lens, niche, 
prize, race. 

Some nouns, ending in o, preceded by a consonant, take "es" without an increase 
of syllables; as, hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes. 

Some nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, require s only. 

Form the plurals of canto, domino, duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, 
octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero, buffalo, calico, cargo, 
echo, embargo, grotto, hero, inuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico, 
23otato, tornado, volcano. 

Common nouns ending in y, after a consonant, change y into i, and take es 
without increase of syllables. Nouns ending in y, after a vowel, require s. 

Form the plurals of alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, daisy, essay, 
fairy, f;;ncy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, 
vanity. 

Nouns ending in / or fe, change f or fe into ves, in the plural; as, loaf, loaves; 
life, lives. 

Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef, brief, chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief, 
mischief, gulf, turf, surf, safe, fife, strife, proof, hoof, repiroof, follow the general 
rule. Nouns in ff have their plural in s ; as, muff, muffs. Staff makes staves, 
but its compounds are regular; as, flagstaff, flagstaff s. Wharf has either wharfs 
or wharves. 

Give the plural of each of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it: 

Ex. — Fox; plural, foxes. 

Rule. — Nouns in x form the plural by adding es. 

Box, book, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, inch, sky, bounty, army, 
duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, 
street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, 
difficulty, distress, wolf, day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy, 
army, vale, ant, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, embryo, gulf, 
handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 

Give the number of the folloiving nouns : Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, prints, spoon, bears, 
lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, 
porch, glass, pitcher, valleys, mountain, cameos. 

Write six sentences, using in each sentence one of the preceding words, first in 
.the singular and then in the plural number. 



8 practical features of english grammar. 

Irregular Plurals. 

Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural; as, man, men; child.. 
children; mouse, mice; foot, feet; cherub, cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; 
datum, data; ellipsis, ellipses; erratum, errata; focus, foci; fungus, fungi; nebula, 
nebulm; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses; memorandum, memoranda. 

Compound Words. 

Some compound nouns in which the principal Avord stands first, vary the first 
word; as, son-in-law, sons-in-law. 

Form the plural of the following words : Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet- 
doux, hanger-on, knight-errant, man-of-war. 

Most compounds vary the last word; as, pailfuls, gentlemen. 
Write the plural of the folloioing : 

Court-yard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget- 
me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-trap, mouthful, piano-forte, porte- 
monnaie, step-son, tete-a-tete, tooth-brush. 

The following nouns are not treated as compounds of man: Brahman, German, 
Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. Their plurals are formed by adding s. 

A few compounds vary both parts; as, man-singer, men-singers. 

Some nouns are occasionally construed as singular, but more properly as plural ; 
as, alms, riches, ethics, pains, politics, optics, and some others. Neios, formerly 
singular or plural, is now mostly singular. Molasses and measles, though ending- 
like a plural, are singular, and are so used. Oats is generally plural; gallows is both 
singular and plural; foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, meaning- 
persons, are always construed as plural ; cannon, shot, sail, cavalry, infantry, are 
either singular or plural. People, when it signifies a community, or body of persons, 
is a collective noun in the singular, and sometimes, though rarely, takes a plural 
form; as, ■' many peoples and nations." 

A few words usually plural, viz : bowels, embers, entrails, lungs, have sometimes 
a singular, denoting a part or portion of that expressed by the plural; as, bowel, 
Jung, etc. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, sioine, vermin, grouse, 
salmon, trout, apparatus, means, hiatus, series, congeries, species, superficies, head, 
cattle; certain building materials, as, brick, stone, plank, joist, in mass; also, fish, 
and sometimes fowl, when denoting the class. But several of these, in a plural 
sense, denoting individuals, have the regular plural also; as, salmons, trouts, fishes, 
fowls, etc. 

The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hundred, thousand, and 
some others, after adjectives of number, or in other constructions, and particularly 
after in, by, etc. in a distributive sense, assume, in the plural, a plural form; as,, 
"in braces and dozens," "by scores and hundreds," "worth thousands." 

Letters, figures, and other characters, are made plural by adding 's. 

Ex. — The «'* and n's in that word. The Jfs and ffs. They may, however, be 
regularly formed. 

When a title is prefixed to a proper name it is made plural by annexing the pluraL 
termination to either the name or the title, but not to both. 

Ex. — The Misses Howard. The Miss Clarks. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9 

But when the title is Mrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the name is always made 
plural. 

Ex. — The Mrs. Browns. The two Mr. Barlows. 

The title is always made plural when it refers to two or more persons. 

Ex. — Drs. Brown and Johnson. 



LESSON VI. 



Person. 



Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of nouns to denote the speaker, the 
person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

There are three persons, called first, second, and third. 

A noun is in the first person when it denotes the speaker; as, "I, Paul, have 
written it." 

A noun is in the second person when it denotes the person or thing addressed; 
as, "Thou, God, seest me." " Hail, Liberty!" 

A noun is in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, 
Washington was brave. Truth is mighty. 

A noun is in the second person when used as explanatory of a pronoun of the 
second person, or when used independently as a term of address; as, Ye crags and 
peaks. Idle time, John, is ruinous. 

Compose sentences in which there shall he two examples of nouns and tioo of pro- 
nouns, used in each of the three persons. 

A noun in the first or second person is never used as the subject or object of a 
verb, but may be put in apposition with either, for the purpose of explanation. 

Ex. — And I have loved thee, Ocean. 



LESSON VII. 



Gender Forms. 

No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a few have different forms 
to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. 

The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways: 

(1.) By a difference in the ending of the words; as, count, countess; executor,. 
executrix. 

(2.) By prefixing a distinguishing word; as, marc-servant, ma^-servant. 

(3.) By using different words; as, son, daughter. 

Ess is the most common ending for feminine nouns. 



10 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns hy adding ess : 
Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god, heir, host, jew, lion, patron, poet, 
prince, prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. 

Drop the vowel e or o, in the ending of the masculine, and add ess : 
Actor, embassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, enchanter, 
hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. 

Drop the masculine er and add the feminine ess : 
Adventurer, caterer, murderer, sorcerer. 

Obs. — Changing the termination of the masculine to form the feminine, is gradu- 
ally going out of use. 

Definitions. 

(Jender is that modification of a noun or pronoun, which denotes sex. 

The masculine gender denotes males. 

The feminine gender denotes females. 

The neuter gender denotes things that are neither male nor female. 

The common gender denotes either sex. 

Gender Forms in Construction. 

Gender, as a matter of orthography, is of some importance; but in etymology it is 
chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns he, she, and it. 

When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes, it i s commonly 
represented by a masculine pronoun. 

Ex. — Every person has Ms faults. 

The pronoun has three gender forms:' Masculine he, feminine she, and neuter it. 

Give five examples of each of the three ways of distinguishing the masculine from 
the feminine. 



LESSON VIII. 



Case. 



Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun, which denotes its office in the 
sentence. 

The subjective case of a noun or pronoun, denotes its office as subject, or as 
attribute complement. 

The possessive case of a noun or pronoun, denotes its office as possessive 
modifier. 

The objective case of a noun or pronoun, denotes its office as object complement, 
or as principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

A noun or pronoun is said to be in the independent case, merely as naming 
the person. 

The subjective, independent, and objective cases of nouns, are alike in form. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular 


man. 


men. 


John. 


man's. 


men's. 


John's. 


man. 


men. 


John. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the 
.subjective; as, John's. 

When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe only; 
as, ladies'. 

Nouns are thus inflected: 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. lady. ladies. 

Poss. lady's. ladies'. 

Obj. lady. ladies. 

Proper names, for the most part, have no plural. 

Obs. — Instead of the possessive form, the preposition of, with the object, may 
be used. 

The objective case is used: 

1. To denote the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, as, "James 
assists Thomas." 

2. To denote the object of a relation expressed by a preposition ; as, "They 
live in London." 

3. To denote time, value, weight, or measure, without a governing word ; as, 
" The wall was 1200 feet long. It was well worth a dollar." 

Correct all the errors in the following sentences: 

1. I have two brother-in-laws. 2. There were three knights-templar in the 
procession. 3. Nebulas are sometimes called star-dust. 4. I saw the two Mrs. 
Jackson. 5. The friends are holding a meeting: some people call them Quakers. 
-6. He called at Steel's, the banker's. 7. The Jones' were all there. 8. The boy's 
skates were broken. 9. The mens' wages should be paid promptly. 10. The 
colonel's of the seventh regiment's horse is unmanageable. 11. She is reading in 
her sister's Emma's book. 12. He studied Greenes grammar. 13. The generals 
presence was unexpected. 14. Among his books, he had folioes, quartoes and 
octavoes. 

Obs. — An explanatory term, or expression, must have the same relation to the 
other words of the sentence as the term explained; it is, therefore, in the same case 
with those words. 

Ex. — His purse was wealth, his word a bond. The world is a stage. 



LESSON IX. 



Pronouns. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, Bunyan was a good man ; 
he wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress." "The boy said, "This book is mine, and /shall 
have it." 

The noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause, for which the pronoun is used, is called 
its antecedent. 

Obs. — Pronouns are used to prevent the awkward repetition of nouns in the same 
connection. 

Pronouns are divided into mrsonal, relative, interrogative and adjective. 



12 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON X. 



Personal Pronouns. 

Personal Pronouns distinguish, the person by their form; that is, the word 
shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 

The simple personal pronouns are I, thou or you, he, she, and it, with their 
plurals, we, you, and they. 

The compound personal pronouns are, myself, thyself, himself, herself, and itself, 
with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

Obs. — The pronoun it is often used without a direct reference to any particular 
person or time. 

Ex. — It is impossible to please everyone. 

Personal Pronouns, like nouns, have person, gender, number, and case. 
Personal jironouns are thus inflected: 

First Person. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


Subj. 


I.' 




we. 


Poss. 


my or mine. 




our or ours. 


Obj. 


me. 




us. 




Second Person, Common 


Sty] 


e. 




Singular and Plural. 






Subj. 


you. 






Poss. 


your or yours. 






Obj. 


you. 

Poetic Style. 








Singular. 




Plural. 


Subj. 


thou. 




ye. 


Poss. 


thy or thine. 




your or yours. 


Obj. 


thee. 




you. 




Third Person (singular). 






Masculine. Feminine. 


Xeuter. 


Subj. 


he she 




it. 


POSS. 


his. her 


or hers. its. 


Obj. 


him. her. 




it 




Third Person (plural), all 


genders. 


Subj. 


they. 






Pass. 


their or theirs. 






Obj. 


them. 







PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 



LESSON XI. 



Relative Pronouns. 

A relative pronoun is one that relates to, and connects its clause with, a noun 
-or pronoun before it. 

Solomon ivho wrote the Proverbs. He does not know what to do. The carriage 
which brought us has returned. 

Obs. — A relative pronoun should never be used merely as a connective. 

Ex. — " I have no doubt but what it is true," is incorrect because the relative 
what is used instead of the conjunction that. 

The word to which the pronoun relates is called its antecedent. 

Simple Relative Pronouns. 

The simple relatives are who, which, that, and what. That and what are inde- 
clinable, and are iised only in the subjective and objective cases. 

Who is masculine or feminine, and that and which are masculine, feminine, or 
neuter. 

Who and which are inflected as follows: 

Sin. and Plu. Sin. and Plu. 

Subj. Who. ' Which. 

Poss. Whose. Whose. 

Obj. Whom. Which. 

Who is applied to persons only; as, The orator loho speaks. 

Which is applied to inferior animals and things; as, The lion which roars. The 
house which was burned. 

That is applied to both persons and things; as, The lion that roars. The house 
that Avas burned. 

What is applied to things only. Its antecedent is always omitted. 

What can be resolved into that which or the thing which. 

As is called a relative pronoun when used after such, many, or same. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

The interrogative pronouns are toho, which, and what, when used in' ask- 
ing questions; as, Who comes here? Which is your hat? What did Wellington 
accomplish ? 

Write seven sentences containing relatives, and seven containing interrogatives. 

An adjective pronoun is a definitive or a distributive adjective, used Avithout 
its noun; as, Some one said so. Give to each his share. 

The adjective pronouns are all, any, both, each, either, neither, few, many, much, 
none, one, some, and a few others. 

Obs. — They are sometimes called pronominal adjectives. 



14 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XII. 



The Personal Pronoun asd its Antecedents. 

Personal pronouns agree with the words for which they stand, in gender, number, 
and person; as, "All that a man hath, will lie give for his life." "A tree is known 
by its fruit. " 

Special Rules. 

When a pronoun refers to two or more words taken together, it becomes plural: 
and if they are of different persons, prefers the first to the second, and the second 
to the third ; as, "He and she did their duty." "John and you and I will do our 
duty." 

When a pronoun refers to two or more words in the singular taken separately, or 
to one of them exclusively, it must be singular; as, "A clock or a watch moves 
merely as it is moved." 

But if either of the words referred to is plural, the pronoun must be plural also;, 
as, "Neither he nor they trouble themselves.'" 

Obs. — Distributives are always of the third person singular. 

Nouns are taken together when connected by and — separately when connected by 
or or nor, as above; also after each, every, no, though connected by and ; as, Each 
book and each paper is in its place. 

When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately, they cannot 
be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun, common gender, 
except by clumsy repetition; thus, "If any man or woman shall violate his or her 
pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such cases, 
though sometimes used, is improper; as, " If any man or woman shall violate their 
pledge," etc. 

Obs. — In all such cases the masculine is preferred. Sometimes the antecedent 
may be pluralized. 

Pronouns referring to singular nouns, or other words of the common gender, 
taken in a general sense, are commonly masculine; as, "A parent should love his 
child." "Every person has his faults." "No one should commend himself." 
The want of a singular personal pronoun, common gender, is felt also in this 
construction. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

In each sentence state the antecedent tvords to tvldrli flic pronouns belong; change the 
pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the change : 

A person's success in life depends on their exertions; if they aim at nothing, they 
will achieve nothing. 

Extremes are not in its nature favorable to happiness. A man's recollections 
of the past regulates their anticipations of the future. Let every boy answer for 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

themselves. Each of us had more than we wanted. Every one of you should 
attend to your own business. 

Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. Both cold and heat 
have its extremes. You and your friend should take care of themselves. You and 
I must be diligent in your studies. 

John or James will favor us with their company. One or the other must relin- 
quish their claim. Neither riches nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. 
Each day and each hour brings their changes. No thought, no word, no action, 
however secret, can escape in the Judgment, whether they be good or evil. 

Let every man and every woman try to do their best. If any boy or girl shall 
neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. One should not think too highly 
of themselves. A teacher should always consult the interest of her pupils. A 
parent's care for her children is not always requited. 

Both James and Samuel learned his lesson. People should be kind to each other. 
Did you see which of the scholars finished their examples first? Every boy and 
every girl shall have their reward. Let the President of the Senate make such 
appointment as it pleases. If any member of the congregation wishes to connect 
themselves with this church, they will please come forward while the choir sings. 

They had some victuals left and we ate it. Every person and every thing was in 
its proper place. The hen-hawk caught a hen, and killed her on her own nest. 
The earth is my mother, and I will repose on its bosom. It is me and not her who 
you wish to see. If any passenger has not paid his fare, they will come up to the 
captain's office and pay it. 



LESSON XIII. 



The Relative and its Antecedents. 

The relative should agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person: 
" Thou who speakest." " The book which was lost.*' 

Who is applied to persons, or things personified; as, "The man who." " The fox 
who had never seen a lion. " 

Which is applied to things and inferior animals — sometimes to children — to 
collective nouns in the singular, implying unity, and also to persons in asking 
questions. 

Which applies to a noun denoting person, when the character, or the person 
merely as a word, is referred to; as, " He is a good writer, which is all he professes 
to be." " That was the work of Herod, which is but another name for cruelty." 

That, as a relative, is used instead of who or which : 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the words very, same, and 
small, — often after no, some, and any, and generally in restrictive clauses. 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things; as, "The man and 
the horse that we saw. 



16 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH C4RAJIMAR. 



3. After the interrogative who, and often after the personal pronouns: as. "Who 
that knew him could think so?" "I that speak in righteousness." 

4. Generally when the propriety of who or which is doubtful; as. ''The little 
child that was placed in the midst." 

In a series of relative clauses having the same antecedent, the same pronoun 
should be used. Thus, it is improper to say, " The man that met us and whom we 
saw." It should be, " 'who met us," or, "that we saw." 

Obs. — The relative should stand as near its antecedent as possible, to avoid 
ambiguity. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

In the following sentences, which are the relatives? What is the antecedent to 
which each refers? Correct all errors, and give the rule, or the reason, for the 
change. 

Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her. This is the friend which I love. 
That is the vice whom I hate. The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without 
pity. The court who gives currency to such manners should be exemplary. The 
nations who have the best rulers are happy. Your friend is one of the committee 
who was appointed yesterday. The family with whom I lived has left the citv. His 
father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired to be. 

It is the best situation which can be got. That man was the first who entered. 
This is the same horse which we saw yesterday. Solomon was the wisest king whom 
the world ever saw. The lady and the lap-dog, which we saw at the window, have 
disappeared. 

It isn't true what he said. The father he died, the mother she followed, and 
the children they were taken sick. The cat it mewed, they dogs they barked, and 
the man he shouted. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. Napoleon, 
Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. Those which say so 
are mistaken. He has some friends which I know. He told that what he knew. 
The dog who was called Fido went mad. The lion whom they were exhibiting 
broke loose. All what he saw he described. The horse whom Alexander rode was 
called Bucephalus. Hand me them things. Who knows but what we may fail. 
I cannot but believe but what I shall see them men again. We ought to have a 
great regard for them that are wise and good. The pupil will receive a reward from 
his teacher who is diligent. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 
A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. A purse was picked up by 
a boy that was made of leather. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who 
scarcely deserved the name of man. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1? 



LESSON XIV. 



ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives modify, describe, or limit, nouns and pronouns; as, good men, ripe 
-apples, five trees, that house. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

Common adjectives are varied in form to express different degrees of the same 
quality; as, great, greater, greatest. There are three of these forms, or degrees of 
comparison, namely: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive expresses simply quality; as, gold is heavy. 

The comparative expresses quality in a higher or lower degree, in one object 
than in another, or in several taken together; as, Gold is heavier than silver. He 
is less skillful than his brother. 

The superlative expresses quality in one object, in the highest or lowest 
degree, as compared with several others; as, gold is the most precious of the metals. 

Rule. — Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form 
the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing more 
and most, or less and least. This method is often used with adjectives of two sylla- 
bles, and sometimes with those of one. 

Compare wise, noble, virtuous, beautiful, happy, merry, industrious, pleasant, 
wicked. 

Irregular Comparison. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly, viz: 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad, evil, or ill 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less, sometimes lesser 


least 


Much or many 


more 


most 


Late 


later, irregular latter 


latest or last 


Near 


nearer 


nearest or next 


Far 


farther 


farthest 


Old 


older or elder 


oldest or eldest 



Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many to things that are numbered; 
more and most, to both. 

Obs. 1. — The comparative degree refers to two things, or sets of things, as distinct 
from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. The 
comparative degree is generally followed by than. 

Obs. 2. — This and these distinguish something as near the speaker in time or 
place; that and those something as not near, or, not as near as something else. 
■2 



18 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Correct all errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for each correction r 
These kind of books can hardly be obtained. I ordered six ton of coal, and these 
make the third that has been delivered. The garden wall is five rod long; I have 
measured it with a ten-foot pole. Twenty heads of cattle passed along the road. 
It is said that a fleet of six sails has just entered the bay. That three pair of gloves 
cost twenty shilling. A man who is prudent and industrious, will, by that means, 
increase his fortune. Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became 
poor. If you are fond of those sort of things, you may have them. There was a 
blot on the first or second pages. The first and second verse are better than the 
third and fourth. Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost. A more 
worthier man you cannot find. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the 
grove. A worser evil yet awaits you. Draw that line more perpendicular. This 
figure is a more perfect circle than that is. He is far from being so perfect as he 
thinks he is. That very subject which we are now discussing is still involved in 
mystery. This vessel, of which you spoke yesterday, sailed in the evening. That 
merchant is the wealthiest of all his neighbors. China has a greater population 
than any nation on earth. That ship is larger than any of its class. There is more 
gold in California than in any part of North America. The birds of Brazil are 
more beautiful than any in South America. Philadelphia is the most regular of any 
city in Europe. Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. 

Olbs. — An and a are different forms of one. An is used before vowel sounds. 
For the sake of euphony, an drops n and becomes a before consonant sounds; as, 
an acorn, a house. 



LESSON XV. 



ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word or expression joined to a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb, to modify it. 

Many adverbs are compared like adjectives; as, soon, sooner, soonest; wisely, 
more wisely, most wisely. 

1. Manner ; as, justly, bravely; 

2. Place ; as, here, there, where, hither; 

3. Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often; 

4. Direction; as, upward, downward; 

5. Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly; 

6. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise; 

7. Interrogation; as, how? why? when?; 

8. Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as; 

9. Quantity; as, much, some, little, enough; 
10. Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next. 



Adverbs express: < 



Special Eule. 
Adverbs should not be used as adjectives, nor adjectives as adverbs. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Correct the errors in the following: 

Come quick and do not hinder us. They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue 
to the war. The then Emperor was noted for his cruelty. She walks graceful. 
He spoke eloquent. She did that work good. Our friends arrived safely. His 
expressions sounded harshly. It rained most every day. He behaved very bad. 

Obs. 1. — Sometimes adverbs connect two clauses, and modify a word in each 
clause. Such words may be termed either conjunctive adverbs, or subordinate 
conjunctions. 

Ex. — Make hay while the sun shines. You speak of it as you understand it. 

Obs. 2. — Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase, or an entire proposition. 
Ex. — The book is soiled only on the outside. 

Obs. 3. — Some adverbs are used independently. 
Ex. — Yes, I think so. Why, that is strange. 

Obs. 4. — The abverb there is sometimes used merely to introduce a sentence. It 
may then be called a mere expletive, or, a word of euphony. 



LESSON XVI. 



THE VERB. 

A verb is a word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject; as, John 
runs. He is loved. The boy sleeps. Crass is green. 

In respect to form, verbs are divided into regular and irregular. 

A regular verb is one that forms its past tense in the indicative mood active, 
and its past participle, by adding ed to the present; as, present, act ; past, acted; 
past participle, acted. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indicative mood 
active, and its past participle by adding ed to the present; as, present, write; past, 
wrote; past participle, ivritten. 

Verbs have tense, person, number, and mood. 

Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or 
the being. 

The present tense expresses action or being as present. 

The past tense expresses action or being as past. 

The future tense expresses action or being as yet to come. 

The present perfect tense expresses action or being as completed at the present 
time. 

The past perfect tense expresses action or being as completed at some past time. 

The future perfect tense expresses action or being to be completed at some 
future time. 

Number and Person. 

Number and person, as applied to verbs, indicate only the form to be used 
with each number and person of the subject. 



X'O PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XVII. 



With respect to their use. verbs are divided into transitive, intransitive, 
and attributive. 

A transitive verb requires an object to complete its meaning; as, Tiie hunter 
killed a bear. The scholar learned his lesson. That house has seven gables. 

Au intransitive verb does not require an object to complete its meaning; as. 
Flowers bloom. Grass grows. The wind blows furiously. 

An attribntive verb asserts and connects its attribute with its subject; as. Snow 
is white. Man is mortal. 

The term attributive is here used to signify a quality or other limitation asserted. 

Intransitive verbs become attributive when the sense is incomplete without an 
attribute; as, It looks round. It appears new. 

Transitive verbs have an inflection called voice. There are two of these inflec- 
tions — the active voice, and the passive voice. 

The active voice represents the subject as acting upon an object; as, John struck 
James. The boy was studying. The cat caught the mouse. 

The passive voice represents the subject as receiving the act ; as, James Avas 
struck by John. The mouse was caught. The lesson was studied. 

The passive voice is formed by prefixing some form of the neuter verb to be to the 
perfect participle of a transitive verb. 

A verb in the active voice is changed into the passive by making the direct 
object in the active, the subject in the passive. 

Intransitive verbs can have no distinction of voice, because they have no object 
which can be used as the subject in the passive. Their form is generally active; as, 
I stand. I run. A few are used also in the passive form, but with the same sense 
as in the active ; as, He is come. They are gone — equivalent to, He has come. 
They have gone. 

Participles. 

A participle has the meaning of a verb, but the construction of an adjective. 

Ex. — I found the purse lying on the ground. 

There are three participles, the present, the past, and the present perfect. 

Ex. — Present, riding; past, ridden; present perfect, having ridden; finding, 
found, having found; moving, moved, having moved. 

The participle is sometimes used as a noun or an adjective, and is then called a 
verbal noun or a verbal adjective. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 



LESSON xv in. 



Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the 
action or being. 

The indicative mode asserts the action or being as a fact. 

The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the 
acting or being. 

The imperative mode commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits; as, Do this. 
Remember thy Creator. Hear, my people. Go thy way. 

Obs. — The subject of a verb in the imperative mode, is always thou, or you, 
understood. 

The infinitive mode expresses the action, being, or state, without affirming it : 
as, to write; to have written; he rose to speak. It does not have person and number. 

The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to, placed before it. This sign 
is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, help, make, need, see, and a few others; 
as, Bid them be quiet; let them come on; see him run. 

The infinitive is sometimes used as an abstract noun. It may then be the subject 
or the attribute of a sentence; it may be in apposition with a noun; or it may be the 
object of a transitive verb or a preposition; as, To lie is disgraceful; to work is to 
pray; delightful task, to rear the tender thought; I love to read; he is about to sell. 

Although the infinitive has the construction of a noun, it may govern an object, 
or be modified by an adverb. 

Ex. — He is learning to read; he is afraid to go. 

It is never limited by an adjective, but may have a predicate adjective belonging 
to it; as, To converse is pleasant. 

Note. — A verb is said to be finite when it has person and number. 

Tenses in all the Modes. 

The indicative mode has six tenses: the present, the past, the present perfect, the 
past perfect, the future, and the future perfect. 

The potential mode has four tenses: the present, the past, the present perfect', and 
the past perfect. 

The {imperative mode has one tense: the present. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses: the present and the present perfect. 

Ex. — To go; to have gone. 

Tense does not properly belong to the infinitive mode. Its tenses are mere forms, 
having no regard to time. 

Conjugation. 

Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb. 
Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person of 
the verb in all its modes and tenses. 



22 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Auxiliary verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs. 

The auxiliaries are do, did, be, have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, might, 
can, could, and must. 

The principal parts of a verb are those from which the other parts are derived. 
They are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indica- 
tive, the present participle, and the past participle. 

Progressive and Passive Forms. 

A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining its present participle to 
the different forms of the verb he. 

A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by joining its past participle to 
the different forms of the verb be. 



LESSON XIX. 



We give, below, the principal parts of some of the most important irregular verbs. 
Learn them. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Be or am, 


was, 


been. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk or drank 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Get, 


got, 


got or gotten. 


Gi ve, 


gave, 


given. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lie (to rest), 


lay, 


lain. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang or rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



23 



Present. 
Run, 
See, 
Set, 
Sit, 
Shake, 
Sing, 
Slay, 
Speak, 
Steal, 
Swim, 
Take, 
Tear, 
Throw, 
Wear, 
Write 



Past. 


Past Participle 


ran, 


run. 


saw, 


seen. 


set, 


set. 


sat, 


sat. 


shook, 


shaken. 


sang or sung, 


sung. 


slew, 


slain. 


spoke, 


spoken. 


stole, 


stolen. 


swam or swum, 


swum. 


took, 


taken. 


tore, 


torn. 


threw, 


thrown. 


wore, 


worn. 


wrote, 


written. 



Signs of the Tenses. 
The pupil should give strict attention to the following signs : 

Indicative Mode. 

Present and past, no sign. 

Present perfect, have. 

Past perfect, had. 

Future, shall or will. 

Future perfect, shall have or will have. 

Obs. — The auxiliaries do in the present tense, and did in the past, are used to 
•give emphasis; as, I do assure you; he did say so. 

Potential Mode. 

Present, may, can, or must. 
Past, might, could, would, or should. 
Present perfect, may have, can have, must have. 
Past perfect, might have, coidd have, would have, or should have. 
.Review these signs when conjugating the verb. 



LESSON XX. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE, OR AM. 

PRINCIPAL parts. 

Present. Past. 

Be, or am, was, 



Past Participle. 
been. 



24 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



REGULAR CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


I am 




We 


] 


You are, 


You 


> are. 


He is 


PAST TENSE. 


They 


) 


I was 


> 


We 


j 


You were, 


You 


>- were. 


He was; 


They 


\ 




FUTURE TENSE. 






I shall be, 


We shal 


You 
He 


- will be; 


You 
They 


j- will be: 




PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 




I 

You 


r have been, 


We 

You 


r have been. 


He has been, 


They 




PAST PERFECT TENSE 






I 


) 


We 


) 


You 
He 


- had been ; 
\ 


Yon 
They 


- had been. 




FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 




[ shall have been, 


We shall have been, 


You 
He 


>• will have been; 


You 
They 


t will have be 




POTENTIAL MODE. 






PRESENT TENSE. 






I 


> may be; 


We 


) 


You 


You 


>■ mav be. 


He 


They 


\ 




PAST TENSE. 






I 


J 


We 


I 


You 


>■ might be; 


You 


[• might be. 


He 


) 


Thev 


\ 



I 

You 
He 

I 

You 

He 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

We 

may have been; You 

They 



mav have been. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



\ 



might have been; 



We , 

You r might have been. 
Thev ' 



Note. — Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third, future tenses, are used tr. 
denote futurity. When will is used in the first person, or shall, in the second or third, determin/i- 
tion or necessity is represented. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

Note. — In reviews, use in the Potential Mode, the auxiliaries can and must, for the present and 
present perfect; and might, could, would, should, for the past and past perfect. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Be, or do you be; 2. Be, or do thou be; 2. Be, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be, Present Perfect, To have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being, Past, Been, Present Perfect, Having been. 

Note. — In the poetic and solemn style, the pronoun in the second person singular, is thou. With 
this pronoun, the second person singular of the verb is conjugated thus: Thou art, thou wast, thou 
wilt be, thou hast been, thou hadst been, ttwn wilt hare been, for the indicative mode; thou mayst 
be, thou, mightst be, ttiou mayst have been, thou mightst ham been, for the potential. Imperative, do 
thou be. 



LESSON XXI. 



Fill out the following forms, using the verb write : 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I , 1. We - 

2. You , 2. You - 

3. He , 3. They 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I , 1. We - 

2. You — , 2. You - 

3. He , 3. They 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I , 1. We — 

2. You . 2. You - 

3. He , 3. They 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I , 1. W r e — 

2. You , 2. You - 

3. He , 3. They 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I , 1. We- 



2. You , 2. You - 

3. He , 3. They 



26 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 



1 — 

You 

He- 



I may 

You may 
He mav — 



1 might — 
You might 
He might - 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
1. 

2. 
3. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. 

— .. 2. 

3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 



PAST TENSE. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

I may have , 1. 

You may have . 2. 

He may have , 3. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

I might have , 1. 

You might have , 2. 

He might have , 3. 

IMPEEATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



We- 
You- 

They 



We may — 
You may 
Thev mav 



We might — 
You might - 
They might 



We may have 

You may have — 
They may have — 

We might have — 
You might have - 
They might have 



Present Tense. 
To , 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



Present Perfect Tense. 
To have . 



Present. 



PAETICIPLES. 
Past. 



Present Perfect. 



LESSON XXII. 



Give a synopsis of the following verbs : 

Call, move, walk, draw, drink, fly, flee, get, fall, bring, buy, arise, take, and eat. 

The utmost care is necessary that the pupil may understand the different forms 
of the verb and their various uses in the expression of thought. 

Write a synopsis of catch in the indicative mode, first person singular, active 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

voice; of choose and drive in all the modes and tenses, third person, plural number, 
passive voice; also, of lie and sit in the progressive form. 
Write all the participles of the above verbs. 

Change into the other tenses of the same mode: I write, I may torite, to write. 

(live the synopsis of the verb be with the man. 



LESSON XXIII. 



Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning. 
Correct the errors in the following sentences and give reasons: 
I done it myself. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it. 
She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her. The tide sits 
in. Go and lay down. The sun sits in the west. I remember when the corner- 
stone was lain. Sit the plates on the table. He sat out for London yesterday. 
The bird is sitting on the eggs. I laid there an hour. Set down and talk a little 
while. He has laid there an hour. I am setting by the river. He has went and 
done it without my permission. He flew from justice. Some valuable land was 
overflown. She came just after you left. They sung a new tune which they had 
not sang before. The water I drunk there was better that any that I had drank 
before. The leaves had fell. I had rode a short distance when the sun begun to 
rise. I found the water froze. He raised up. He run until he became so weary 
that he had to lay down. I had began to think that you had forsook us. I am 
afraid that I cannot learn him to do it. 



LESSON XXIV. 



Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

Exercises to be Corrected. 

Name the verb in each of the following sentences. Name its subject. If they 
agree, give the rule and show how it applies. If they do not agree, change the verb 
to agree with its subject, and give the rule: 

Ex. — I loves reading. Loves should be love, to agree with 7, in the first person 
singular. I love reading. 

A soft answer turn away wrath. The days of man is as grass. Thou sees how 
little has been done. He dare not act otherwise. Fifty pounds of wheat produces 
forty pounds of flour. A variety of beautiful objects please the eye. So much of 



28 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ability and merit are seldom found. A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate 
improvement. Was you there. The derivation of these words are uncertain. 
To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable. She needs not trouble herself. 
Forty head of cattle were sold in one hour. The horse was sent forward to engage 
the enemy. The foot, in the meantime, was preparing for an attack. Fifty sail 
were seen approaching the shore. Two dozen is as many as you can take. One 
pair was spoiled. Five pair was in good condition. Patience and diligence, like 
faith, removes mountains. Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Anger 
and impatience is always unreasonable. Out of the same mouth proceeds blessing 
and cursing. To profess regard, and act differently, marks a base mind. To be 
good and to seem good are different things. That able scholar and critic have died. 
Your friend and patron who were here yesterday have called again to-day. 

Correct all the errors in the following sentences: 

It is me. It was me who wrote the letter, and him who carried it to the post- 
office. I am sure it could not have been her. You would probably do the same 
thing if you were him. I understood it to be he. It may have been him, but 
there is no proof of it. Whom do you think he is ? Whom do men say that 
I am ? He is the man whom you said it was. He and they we know, but who 
art thou ? She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye only have I 
known. They that honor me I will honor. Who do you think I saw yesterday? 
Who, having not seen, we love. Who should I meet the other day but my old 
friend. Who dost thou take to be such a coward ? You will have reason enough 
to repent you of your foolish conduct. Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. 
Several persons were entered into a conspiracy. Fifty men are deserted from the 
army. I am purposed that I will not sin. He has almost perished with cold. I 
am resolved to go. No country will allow of such a practice. False accusation 
cannot diminish from his real merit. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 



LESSON XXV. 



Prepositions. 

A Preposition is used to show the relation between a noun or a pronoun, and 
some other word in the sentence. 

A noun or pronoun following the preposition is called its object. 

The object of the preposition is often a phrase or a clause. The preposition and 
its object, taken together, form a phrase. 

Two or more prepositions are sometimes combined, expressing a single relation : 
as, out of, according to. 

Below is a list of prepositions in common use: 

aboard, behind, from, to, 

about, below, in, into, toward, 

above, beneath, of, towards, 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



29 



beside, 


on, 


under, 


besides, 


over, 


underneath, 


between, 


past, 


until, 


beyond, 


regarding, 


unto, 


by, 


respecting, 


up, 


down, 


round, 


upon, 


during, 


throughout, 


with, 


except, 


till, 


within, 


for, 


through, 


without. 



across, 
after, 
against, . 
along, 
amidst, 
among, 
amongst, 
around, 
at, 
before, 
Many words, as, before, after, till, until, off, like, etc., are used either as preposi- 
tions, or as adverbs, according to the relation which they sustain to other words. 



LESSON XXYI. 



Conjunctions. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses, of the same rank; 
as, He and I must go, but you must stay. 

Subordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses, of different 
rank; as, I shall go when the stage arrives. 

Corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs; as, I will neither 
buy nor sell. 

The principal co-ordinate conjunctions in common use are and, both, either, or, 
neither, nor, but, as well as. 

The subordinate conjunctions are very numerous, and include relative pronouns, 
conjunctions, and adverbs. 



LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS: 



Coordinate. 
and, 
or, 
nor, 
but, 

yet, 

however, 

still, 

nevertheless. 



Corresponsive. 



both, 

either, 

neither, 

though, 

whether, 



and, 

or, 

nor, 

yet, 

or, 



Subordinate. 

if, 

unless, 

though, 

that, 

lest, 

than, 

since, 

because. 

Subordinate Conjunctions, 
or, 
Conjunctive Adverbs. 
when, how, 

where, why, 

while, until, 

before, ere, 

after, till. 



30 



practical features of english grammar. 
Interjections. 



An Interjection is a word that expresses some sudden or strong emotion; as. 
Hark ! they whisper. Hurra ! they run. 

0, oh, alas, ah, ho, aha, pshaw, are interjections. 

Write sentences containing conjunctions and interjections. Use both co-ordinates 
and subordinates, and show the difference between them. 



LESSON XXVII. 



Questions. 

What are modifications? Have English words many inflections? What is num- 
ber ? Define the singular and the plural. How is the plural formed regularly ? 
How, irregularly ? Illustrate. How do compounds form the plural ? How do 
letters, figures, etc., form the plural? Mention nouns having the same form in 
both numbers ; some that are always singular ; some that are always plural. In 
how many ways may the number of nouns be determined ? Illustrate. Define the 
different genders. In what three ways may the masculine of nouns be distinguished? 
Give the three gender forms of the pronoun. Of what importance is gender in 
grammar ? When is the pronoun of the masculine gender used ? When is the 
indefinite pronoun it used? Define person and case. Define the three persons, and 
state how they are used. How many case forms have nouns, and what are they? 
How is the possessive singular of nouns regularly formed ? The possessive nouns 
in the plural ? Illustrate. What is the possessive sign ? To which word of com- 
pound names, or of groups of words treated as such, is the sign added ? Illustrate. 
Instead of the possessive form, what may be used ? Illustrate. In what case only, 
can mistakes in the construction of nouns occur. Illustrate the cautions relating to 
possessive form. 

What is declension? Decline girl; tooth. Decline the several personal pronouns; 
the relatives; the interrogatives. What adjective pronouns are declined wholly or 
in part? Illustrate. 



LESSON XXVIII. 



What classes of words have three case forms ? Give the subjective and the 
objective forms of the pronouns. Adjectives have what modification? Define com- 
parison. Define the three degrees of comparison. Give the rules for comparing 
adjectives. Mention some adjectives that are not compared. How are adverbs 
compared ? Illustrate. When is the comparative degree used ? When the super- 
lative? Write sentences illustrating the three degrees. Define voice. Define the 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

two voices. Have all verbs the two voices ? Illustrate. Iu changing from the 
passive to the active voice, what becomes of the subject? In changing from the 
active to the passive, what becomes of the object? What is mode? Define the four 
modes. Define tense. Define the six tenses. Define the infinitive. Is to part 
of the infinitive? Define participles. What is conjugation? Synopsis? Define 
auxiliary verbs. Illustrate. What are the principal parts of the verb? Illustrate'. 
How many forms have regular verbs? How many have irregular verbs? How is a 
verb conjugated in the progressive form? In the emphatic? In the passive? How 
interrogatively? Negatively? Illustrate all the above forms. 



LESSON XXIX. 



PARSING. 

Parse all the words in the following selection: 

1. The entire brigade scarcely made one effective regiment, according to the 
numbers of Continental armies, and yet it was more than we could spare. As they 
rushed toward the front, the Russians opened on them from the guns in the redoubt 
on the right, with volleys of musketry and rifles. They swept proudly past, glit- 
tering in the morning sun in all the pride and splendor of war. 

2. We could scarcely believe the evidence of our senses. Surely that handful of 
men are not going to charge an army in position! Alas! it was but too true. Their 
desperate valor knew no bounds, and far indeed was it removed from its so-called 
better part — discretion. 

3. They advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as they closed toward the 
enemy. A more fearful spectacle was never witnessed than by those who beheld 
those heroes rushing to the arms of death. At the distance of twelve hundred yards 
the entire line of the enemy belched forth, from thirty iron mouths, a flood of smoke 
and flame through which hissed the deadly balls. Their flight was marked by 
instant gaps in our ranks, by dead men and horses, by steeds flying wounded or 
riderless across the plain. 

4. The first line is broken ! — it is joined by the second ! — they never halt or 
check their speed for an instant. With diminished ranks — thinned by those thirty 
guns which the Russians had laid with the most deadly accuracy — with a halo of 
flashing steel above their heads, and with a cheer which was many a noble fellow's 
death-cry, they flew into the smoke of the batteries; but, ere they were lost from 
view, the plain was strewed with their bodies, and with the carcasses of horses. — 
[Russell. 



32 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ESTGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXX. 



PUNCTUATION. 

The proper use of punctuation characters is a sort of fine art, and admits of as 
great diversity as does the style of an author. It is equally true, however, that as an 
art, it is based upon certain definite principles, and that the direct violation of these 
principles will often make obscure or ambiguous, the writer's meaning. Parts 
closely connected in sense should not be separated ; but any interruption of the 
sense or modification of it by qualifying statements, must be indicated by appro- 
priate points. There is greater danger, however, of confusing the sense of compo- 
sition by over-punctuation than by the omission of proper marks. A good rule, 
therefore, for those to observe who are not expert is never to introduce a point 
unless there is some positive need for so doing, and where there is any reasonable 
doubt as to the propriety of using a comma, omit it. 

The characters used in Punctuation are, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, 
the period, the interrogation, the exclamation, the dash, the parenthesis, 
and the quotation marks. Of these only the period, the comma, and the 

interrogation are used in ordinary letter writing or book-keeping. 
A few rules for the use of these points will be given. 

The Comma. 
This character denotes the least degree of seperation that requires a point. 

Rule 1. — Parenthetical words, phrases, and clauses, must be separated by com- 
mas from the rest of the sentence. 

Examples. — "Napoleon was, unquestionably, a man of courage." 
" Generally speaking, an indolent person is unhappy." 
"Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles." 
' ' The Romans, who conquered Greece, were brave men. " 

Xote. — If the relative clause is restrictive, no comma should he used, as, "The man who is 
honest will be trusted." 

Rule 2. — The principal parts of the heading, address, conclusion, and super- 
scription of a letter, should be separated by a comma. 

Ex.— Boston, Mass., July 11, 1887. 

Mr. J. H. Williams, 

190 James St., 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Yours respectfully, 

Robert Blair. 

Rule 3. — -Words in a series, of the same part of speech, and of the same con- 
struction, should be separated by a comma. 

Ex. — "Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance, are among the cardinal 

virtues." 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 33 

When the conjunctions are expressed, the comma should he omitted; as, " Let us 
try to enrich and purify and ennoble our minds." 

Obs. — Two or more words are of the same construction when they have a common 
dependence on some other term. 

Rule 4. — When the terms of a series are joined in pairs, they should be separated 
in pairs by the comma. 

Ex. — " The dying man cares not for pomp or luxury, palace or estate, silver or 
gold." 

Rule 5. — Words or phrases contrasted with each other, are separated by commas. 
Ex. — "We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; in feelings, not in 
figures on a dial." 

Rule 6. — In compound sentences, when the verb is expressed only in the first 
clause, and understood in all the others, a comma takes its place. 

Ex. — "Reading makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; writing an exact 
man." 

Rule 7. — When a transposition occurs, so that an adjunct, or a clause, which 
would naturally follow a verb, is introduced before it, a comma is generally required. 
Ex. — " To obtain an education, he was willing to make sacrifices." 

Rule 8. — Words and phrases in apposition, also words and phrases used inde- 
pendently, are set off by commas. 

Ex. — "Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest." 

"We, the people of the State of New York, in convention assembled," &c. 

"His father being dead, the prince ascended the throne." 

"Now, sir, what is your conclusion?" 

Rule 9. — A comma must be used before or, when it introduces an equivalent, an 
■ explanatory word, or a phrase defining the author's meaning. 
Ex. — The skull, or cranium, protects the brain. 

Rule 10. — The comma must set off quotations, passages resembling them in 
form, and observations in general, when short and not formally introduced. 
Ex. — "It was Bion that first said, ' Know thyself.' " 
" 'The book of Nature,' said he, 'is open before thee.' " 
"I say unto all, Watch." 

Rule 11. — Independent clauses, when short and closely connected, should be 
separated by a comma. 

Ex. — " Science tunnels mountains, it spans continents, it bridges seas, and it 
weighs the stars.'" 

Rule 12. — A word emphatically repeated is generally set off by a comma. 
Ex. — "Happy, happy, happy child." 

The Semicolon. 

The Semicolon is used to separate parts of a sentence less closely connected than 
those separated by a comma. 

Rule 1. — Members of sentences subdivided by commas, unless very closely con- 



34 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nected, should be separated by semicolons; as, "Mirth should be the embroidery of 
conversation, not the web; and wit the ornament of the mind, not the furniture. " r 

Rule 2. — Clauses and expressions in a series, having a common dependence upon 
another clause, are separated from each other by a semicolon, and from the common 
clause by a comma and dash; as, "If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in 
the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; 
of morals without a stain; of religious feelings without intolerance and without 
extravagance, — the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation 
of all these ideals. ' ? 

Rule 3. — A semicolon should be placed between the members of compound sen- 
tences, unless the connection is very close. 

Ex. — " Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom." 

Note 1. — The connective is sometimes omitted; as, " The miser grows rich by seeming poor; the- 
extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich." 

Note 2. — When the clauses are short and the connection is close, a comma may be employed,-, 
as, " Simple men admire the learned, ignorant men despise them." 

Rule 4. — A semicolon must be placed before an enumeration of particulars, 
when the names of the objects are given without any formal introductory words or 
accompanying description. 

Ex. — "To Greece we are indebted for the three principal orders of architecture r. 
the Doric, the Ionian, and the Corinthian." 

Rule 5. — A semicolon must be placed before the conjunction as, when it intro- 
duces an example. 

Ex.— An explanatory adjunct is one used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun;: 
as, "We, the people, ordain the Constitution." 

The Colon. 

The Colon is the intermediate point between the Semicolon and the Period. 

Rule 1. — When a clause is followed by an additional remark or illustration^ 
especially if no connective is used, the colon is employed. 

Ex. — "Avoid evil doers: in such society an honest man may become ashamed of 
himself." "Yes, sir: it has been attended to." 

Rule 2. — A colon is used before a direct quotation. 

Ex. — "In his last moments he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
and luxury.' " 

Note 1. — "When the quotation is long, or begins a new paragraph, the colon may be followed by 
a dash; as, " The cloth having been removed, the president rose and said; — 
' Ladies and gentlemen, we have assembled,' " &c. 

Note 2. — If the quoted passage is introduced by that, or if it is short and introduced in tin- 
middle of a sentence, a colon is not admissible before it; as, " Bion's favorite maxim, ' Know thy- 
self,' is worth whole pages of good advice." 

Rule 3. — When the main title of a book is followed by an alternative or explana- 
tory title, not introduced by or, tbe two are separated by a colon, 

Ex. — "Esthetics: the Science of Beauty." 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

Note. — A colon is also commonly used after the place of publication at the foot of the title page; 
as, " New York: Sheldon & Co." 

The Period. 
Rule 1. — Put a period after every sentence that is not interrogative or exclamatory. 
Ex. — " Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow.'' " Be true to thyself." 

Rule 2. — -A period is used after all abbreviated words not written with the 
apostrophe. 

Rule 3. — A period should be used after the title, or any of the headings, of a 
book; after the author's name and titles on the title page; after the address of a 
person on a letter or note; and after each signature to a letter or other document. 

Ex. — An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought: a Treatise on Pure and 
Applied Logic. By "William Thompson, D. D., Provost of the Queen's College, 
Oxford. New York: Sheldon & Co. 

The Interrogation. 

An Interrogation point is used to ask or suggest a question. 

Ex. — " In life, can love be bought with gold ?" 

Note. — When several questions have a common dependence, they should he followed by one 
mark of interrogation at the end of the series; as, " Where be your gibes now; your gambols; your 
songs; your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table in a roar? " But when the ques- 
tions are distinct and separate, each should be followed by an interrogation mark; as, " What is 
civilization? Where is it? Where does it commence? Where does it end ? '' 

Quotation Marks. 
Quotation marks are used to show that the words inclosed by them are borrowed. 
Rule 1. — A direct quotation should be inclosed by quotation marks. 
Ex. — Socrates said, " I believe the soul to be immortal." 

Rule 2. — -When one quotation is embraced within another, the contained quota- 
tion has single marks. 

Ex. — "The great rule," says Lavater, "of moral conduct, or 'ethics,' as it is 
styled by Philosophers, is to make the best use of one's time." 

The Exclamation. 

Rule 1. — An exclamation point must be placed after every exclamatory sentence, 
member, clause, and expression. 

1. After an exclamatory sentence, — "How it rains! " 

2. After an exclamatory member, — " The clock is striking midnight; how solemn 
and suggestive the sound ! " 

. 3. After an exclamatory clause, — "Unhappy man that I am, what have I done!" 
4, After an exclamatory expression, — "How sad ! " 

Rule 2. — An exclamation point should be put after every interjection except 0. 

Note. — Observe the difference between and oh. The former is used only before the names of 
objects addressed or invoked, is not immediately followed by an exclamation point and must always 
be a capital; the latter is used by itself to denote different emotions of the mind, has an exclamation 
point after it, aad begins with a small letter except at the commencement of a sentence. 



36 practical features of english grammar. 

The Dash. 
The Dash is used to mark some kind of a break or interruption. 
Rule 1. — A dash is used to show a sudden change in the construction or sentiment. 
Ex. — " The heroes of the Eevolution — how do we regard their memory? " " She 
was beautiful — in her own opinion." 

Rule 2. — A dash is used to mark a rhetorical pause or a suspension of the voice 
for effect. 

Ex. — "Men will wrangle for religion, write for it, anything but — live for it." 

Rule 3. — A dash may be used after other points, when a greater pause than they 
usually denote is required. 

Rule 4. — A dash is used to denote the omission of letters, figures, and words. 

Rule 5. — A dash is sometimes used to mark the transition from a succession of 
particulars to some emphatic general expression which includes them all. 

Ex. — "He was witty, learned, industrious, plausible, — everything but honest." 

The Hyphen. 

Rule 1. — The hyphen must be placed between words that unite to form a single 
epithet, and also between the parts of a compound substantive when each receives 
the stress of the voice ; as, self -conceit, laughter-loving , good-natured, twenty-one, 
never-to-be-forgotten. 

Rule 2. — When from want of space, a portion of a word has to be carried to a 
new line, the division must be made after a complete syllable, and the hyphen is 
used at the end of the line to connect the separated parts. 

Use of Capital Letters. 

1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital. 

2. All proper nouns, and adjectives derived from them, should begin with capitals. 

3. Titles of office, honor, and respect, should begin with capitals. 

4. The initial letter in all words denoting the Deity should be a capital. 

5. Capital letters should be used for the pronoun / and the interjection 0. 

6. Every quotation forming a sentence, and every direct quotation introduced 
into a sentence, should begin with a capital. 

?. Every line of poetry should begin with a capital. 

8. The name of a thing personified should begin with a capital. 

9. Begin with a capital every noun, adjective, and verb, in the titles of books 
and headings of chapters. 

10. The names of the months of the year and the days of the week should begin 
with capitals. 

Note. — Use a small letter when in any doubt as to the propriety of using a capital. 

Write all the words of the following list requiring capitals in one line, and all the 
others in anotber line: 

ohio, state, Chicago, france, bostoniau, country, england, boston, milton, river, 
girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miitonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, 
america, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, broadway, jehovah, christ, britisb, 
easier, europe, man, scriptures, god. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

Give reasons for the capitals in the following words: 

Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New York City, 
Harpers Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, 
White Mountains, River Thames, Astor House, Steamer Drew, North Pole. 

Punctuate and use capitals: 

in what state is mount Washington baltimore is an american City The territory 
of alaska was bought of russia Address your letter to j p Jones new Brunswick n j 
send me a copy of pickwick bound in Calf i intend to go south in march Monday 
txiesday Wednesday and friday are Days of the week A chinaman likes rats an 
englishman does not Burns'ide having at his own request Been relieved of the 
Command of the army of the potomac Avas succeeded by gen hooker who crossed 
the rhappahannock in april and Encountered Lee on the 2d and 3d of may at 
chancellorsville. 

It was the object of gen grant to Open the miss while commanding the Forces of 
the southwest he first attacked vicksburg Leaving thomas in tenn to Watch hood 
sherman destroyed atlanta and then struck out for the Sea Advancing through ga 
living upon the Country On the Morning of the 21st of dec He Entered the City 
a b dr lb 1 1 d p o eng aa p m oz i e viz ill dol per cent col hon m c an 
Eminent Writer says talent knows what to do Tact how to do it The Mandates of 
god must be obeyed o Balmy Spring o day of dear Delights. The Ways of provi- 
dence are Concealed from man emporia kansas July 4th 1887 dr williams Cincinnati 
ohio h d gunn m d Chicago ill The ohio river the rocky mountains the atlantic 
ocean lake michigan and niagara falls are names familiar to every american citizen 
The north the south the east and the west are four grand divisions of the u s hail 
holy light offspring of heavens first born sing heavenly muse He Dare not Touch 
a hair of cataline Awake Arise or be forever fallen Today if You Hear His voice 
harden not your Hearts. 

Abbreviate the following: 

Connecticut, captain, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Nebraska, Oregon, Professor, Tennessee, and, Thursday, Alabama, answer, Arkan- 
sas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire, Friday, General, George, gov- 
ernor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the 
months, except May, June, and July, Company, county, credit, and Idem (the same), 
East, north and south, Doctor, debtor, Georgia, Junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, 
Maine, Maryland, Mister, Master, Numeral (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, 
Vermont, and Virginia. 



38 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXXI. 



RULES FOE SFELLING. 

Rule 1. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end 
with a single consonant preceded by a vowel, or by a vowel after qn, double their 
final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel. 

Ex. — Run, running ; rebel', rebelV ing ; quiz, quizz'ing ; acquit', acquitt' ing ; 
begin' , beginn'er ; infer' , inferr'ed, inferr'ing. 

Exceptions. — (1.) Those derivatives in which the accent of the primitive is 
thrown back on another syllable; as, infer', inference; prefer' , pref erence; defer' , 
deference; refer 1 , reference. (2.) X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 

Obs.— A few words which do not comply with the conditions expressed in this 
rule, also double the' final consonant ; as, metal, metallurgy; crystal, crystalline, 
crystallize; appeal, appellant; inflame, inflammation. 

Rule 2. — Monosyllables ending in a consonant not preceded by a single vowel, 
and words of more syllables ending in the same way, when the accent is on any 
other syllable than the last, do not double the final consonant. 

Ex. — Sail, sailing ; brief, briefer; rev' el, rev'eler ; profit, profited ; perform, 
performer; stand, standing. 

Exceptions. — A few words ending in g; as, humbug, humbugged. 

Rule 3. — Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant. 

Ex. — Pass, well, till, roll, full. 

Exceptions. — As, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus, sal, nil, sol, clef, 
if. and of 

Rule 4.. — Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, do not double the 
final letter. 

Exceptions. — Abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, err, inn, burr, purr, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, 
and some proper names. 

Rule 5. — Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before an 
additional syllable, not beginning with the same letter. 

Ex. — Ebb, ebbing; see, seeing; hill, hilly; small, smallness; agree, agreeable, agree- 
ment; full, fullness. 

Exceptions. — Pontiff : , pontific, pontifical, and a few irregular words; as, flee, fled; 
sell, sold, &c. 

Rule 6.— The final e of a primitive word, when silent, is generally omitted before 
an additional syllable beginning with a vowel. 

"Ex.— Guide, guidance; use, usage, using; sale, salable; force, forcible; rate, 
ratable; eye, eying; come, coming; grieve, grievance, grieving. 

Exceptions.— The e is retained in the words hoeing, shoeing, toeing; also in 
dyeing, singeing, tingeing, from dye, singe, and tinge, to distinguish them from 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 

<dying, singing, tinging, derived from die, sing, and ting. It is also retained before 
4in additional syllable beginning with a or o, and immediately after c or g, in order 
to preserve the sound of those consonants in pronunciation. 

Ex. — Peace, peaceable; notice, noticeable; manage, manageable ; advantage, advan- 
tageous; change, changeable; outrage, outrageous. 

Rule 7. — Words ending with e silent, generally retain the e before an additional 
syllable beginning with a consonant. 

Ex. — Bate, hateful; incite, incitement; move, movement; lohole, loholesome; rue, 
rueful. When, however, the e is immediately preceded by another vowel, it is often 
■dropped in the derivative; as, Due, duly; argue, argument; true, truly; awe, awful. 

Rule 8. — Final y, preceded by a consonant and followed by any letter except i, 
is changed into i in the derivative word. 
Ex. — Icy, iciest, icily; tidy, tidiness; modify, modifies; pity, pitiful; try, trial. 

The derivatives of adjectives of one syllable ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
are exceptions, and generally retain the y; as, shy, shyness; sly, slyness; dry, dryly; 
■spry, spryer, spryest; wry, toryness. 

Y final, preceded by a vowel, or followed by i, remains unchanged. 

Ex. — Gay, gayly ; sway, swayed; obey, obeying; enjoy, enjoying; chimney, 
chimneys. 

The words daily, laid, paid, said, slain, and staid, derivatives from day, lay, pay, 
say, slay, and stay, are exceptions. 

Rule 9. — Derivatives formed by prefixing one or more syllables to words ending 
in a double consonant, commonly retain both consonants. 
Ex. — Rebuff, befall, inthr all, fulfill, foretell, undersell. 
The word until is an exception, being always written with one /. 

Rule 10. — In words ending with c, the letter k is inserted before an additional 
syllable beginning with e, i, or y. 

Ex. — Traffic, trafficked, trafficker, trafficking; mimic, mimicked; zinc, zincky. 

Rule 11. — When the letters e and i are used together in a word, the e comes 
first after c and the i after every other consonant. 

Ex. — Receive, deceive, conceit, relief, grief, piece, believe. 



LESSON XXXII. 



Style, or Manner of Expressing Thought. 

One who wishes to become a good writer or speaker, must first learn to think 
•clearly and accurately. We need not hope to give to others a full and clearly 
•defined impression of any subject, until a distinct idea of that subject exists in our 
own minds. 



40 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The habit of writing or speaking without first knowing definitely what we intend 
to say, will invariably produce an obscure and slovenly style of expression; and just 
as surely will careful and diligent thought find expression in a clear and effective 
style. The formation of such a style is, without question, desirable, and must be 
acquired before any great degree of success can be attained. Although nothing will 
take the place of constant practice, a few rules and suggestions may be of use. 

Style includes Diction, or the selection and right use of words; and Construction, 
or combining words into sentences. 

Diction. 

Our ability to express our thoughts is limited by the number and variety of words 
we have at command — that is, the number of words which we can correctly and 
promptly use. It is therefore important that we should have a large vocabulary. 
Some of the means of acquiring this which lie within the reach of every one are 
the following: Close attention to the language of persons of scholarly attainments; 
the study of etymology; the frequent use of the dictionary; and the careful reading 
of the works of the best authors. 

The essential elements of good diction are, Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 

Diction, to be pure, must belong to the language as it is at present used, of the 
best writers and speakers. Campbell, the rhetorician, defines good usage to be: 

1. Reputable, or the practice of intelligent and educated writers; 

2. National, as opposed to provincial and foreign; 

3. Present, or the usage of the generation in which one lives. 
A violation of Purity is called a Barbarism. 

Propriety consists in using words in their proper sense. 

Similarity of sound or of appearance, between two words, and sometimes an 
association of ideas regarding them, lead to the use of a word in the wrong place. 

Ex. — Couple is often incorrectly used for two; character for reputation; avocation 
for vocation; predict for predicate; neglect for negligence; respectively for respectfully ; 
aggravate for irritate; a long ways for a long way. The verbs lie and lay; set and 
sit; rise and raise; also the auxiliaries shall and will are frequently used improperly, 
one for the other. 

In the use of prepositions with verbs, nouns, and adjectives, care should be taken 
to select those which are sanctioned by good usage. 

Ex. — Adapted to a thing, ox for a purpose; agree with persons, to things;, attend 
to (listen), upon (wait); bestow upon; confer on (give), with (converse); conform 
to; conformable to or with; conversant with persons, in affairs, about subjects;, 
correspond with (by letter), to (similar things); differ with a person in opinion, 
differ from another in appearance, difference between persons or things ; divide 
between two, among more; reconcile to persons, with things; reduce to a state, under 
subjection. 

Precision requires the use of such words as express neither more nor less meaning 
than is intended. 

Words which mean nearly the same are called synonyms; there are, however, but 
few words in any language that are exactly synonymous. A careful study of the 
subject of Synonyms will enable one to detect the different shades of meaning in 
such words, and he will soon learn to use them with precision. 



l'KACTIOAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

Distinguish between the following: 

Abundance and plenty, praise and commendation; sufficient and enough; repent- 
ance and penitence; avow, acknowledge, and confess; design, purpose, and intention; 
hasten and hurry; pride and vanity; force and strength; truth and veracity; disbelief 
and unbelief; distrust and suspicion; disadvantage and injury; difficulty and obsta- 
cle; whole, entire, total, and complete; explicit and express; example and instance; 
constant, continual, and perpetual; fortitude and courage; balance and remainder: 
idle and Z«z?/; r// 1 A'.sY and a^ length; waver and fluctuate; fault and defect; genius 
and talent. 

It is hardly possible to give too much attention to words. They are "vehicles of 
thought." "They indicate both the moral and the intellectual character. The 
surest proof of scholarship, of discipline, of strong thought, is the right use of 
words." 



LESSON XXXII. 



CONSTRUCTION. 

Sentences should be constructed in accordance with the principles of Grammar, 
and the laws of Rhetoric. 

Grammar teaches how to speak and write correctly; Rhetoric how to speak and 
write effectively. 

That division of Grammar which treats of the relation and proper arrangement 
of words in sentences, is called Syntax. Some of the most important rules of 
Syntax will be given below. These, combined with the observations following each 
rule, will guide the pupil in constructing and correcting sentences according to the 
principles of established usage. 

Adjectives. 
Rule 1. — Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 

Special Rules. 

1. The definitive adjectives, a, an, and the, are commonly called articles. 

2. A and an are different forms of one. A should be used before the sound of 
a consonant, an before that of a vowel; as, a pen, a friend, an art, an honor. 

3. A, an, or the, should be used before each of two or more adjectives in a series, 
when these adjectives modify different nouns; when they modify the same noun, the 
article should be used but once. 

Ex. — "A beautiful and a happy child," means two children; ''a beautiful ami 
happy child." means one child. 

4. A, an, or the, should be repeated before nouns in a series, when they denote 
things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized; as, " It was the 
loss, not the dishonor that troubled him." 

5. In expressing a comparison, a, an, or the should not be used if both nouns 



42 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

refer to the same thing; and should not be omitted if they refer to different things; 
as, " He is a better poet than statesman," expresses different qualifications of the 
same man; but, " He is a better poet than a statesman," refers to different men. 

6. A, an, or the, should be omitted before a participle that is not used in all 
respects as a noun; as, "He made a mistake in giving out the lesson" — not the 
giving out. 

7. Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in 
number; as, that kind, those kinds; twelve bushels; "Those kind of books," "ten 
bushel," "five foot," are incorrect expressions; for when the adjective is plural, the 
noun should also be plural. 

8. The phrase, one another, should not be applied to tioo objects, nor each other, 
to more than two; as, "George, Ella, and Mary should be kind to one another;'''' 
" Helen and Julia should love each other." 

9. In the comparative degree, the latter term of comparison should never include 
the former; as, "New York is larger than any city in America." It should be, 
"than any other city." 

10. In the superlative degree, the latter term of comparison should never exclude 
the former; as, "Profanity is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable." It should 
be, "of all vices." 

11. Adjectives that express quality which cannot exist in different degrees, 
should not be compared; as, "So universal a custom," should be, "So general a 
custom." 

12. In a series of adjectives, the shortest and simplest should generally be placed 
first; as, "He is an older and more respectable man." 

13. Either and neither refer to two things only, any and none to more than two; 
as, "Either or neither of the two;" any or none of the five." 

14. Each, one, either, and neither, are always in the third person singular number, 
and their verbs and pronouns must agree with them in person and number; as, 
"Each of you is expected to do his duty." "Let no one deceive himself." "If 
either is to be saved, let it be the most useful." " Neither of your plans is wise." 

Observations. 

1. A, an, or the, may sometimes be omitted in expressing different qualities, by 
using a plural noun; as, "The Eastern and Western Continents," for, "The East- 
ern and the Western Continent." 

2. When a is used before few or little, the meaning is, some at least; when no 
article is used, the meaning is, none, or almost none. 

3. The is sometimes an adverb; a is sometimes a preposition; as, the stronger, 
the better; go a. fishing. 

4. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of each or every; as, "It occurs once 
a year." It is by some preferred toper; as, "One dollar (for) a pound." 

5 Adjectives should not be used for adverbs in prose composition ; as, " He 
writes rapid," should be, "He writes rapidly." 

Correct the errors in the following : 

1. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 2. These sketches are not 
imaginary but taken from the life. 3. What is the difference between the old and 
new method. 4. You will never have another such a chance. 5. I expected some 
such an answer. 6. I should rather have an orange than apple. 7. Words which 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

•ure signs of complex ideas are often misunderstood. 8. In keeping of His com- 
mandments, there is great reward. 9. The path of truth is a plain and a safe one. 
10. He is a more effective writer than a speaker. 11. The interest is the tenth part 
of the sum. 12. A winding stairs led us to the Senate Chamber. 13. Everett, the 
scholar, the statesman, and the orator, was present. 14. The Old and New Testa- 
ment. 15. The Old and the New Testaments. 16. He was distinguished both as 
■a teacher and scholar. 17. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 18. I like this 
book better than any book I have seen. 19. He was the tallest of his three brothers. 
20. I do not like that sort of people. 21. The lot is thirty foot wide. 22. Words 
are derived from each other in various ways. 23. He chose the latter of these three. 
24. The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 25. That opinion is too 
universal to be easy corrected. 26. There is a more agreeable and easier way. 
27. He acted much wiser than the others. 28. Let each of them bo heard in their 
turn. 29. Are either of these men known ? 30. Here are five, but neither of them 
are going. 31. You have been studying this three hours. 32.' He has a most spot- 
less reputation. 33. It is a better treatise on this subject than any that ever was 
written. 34. Solomon was wiser than, anv of the ancient kings. 



LESSON XXXIII. 



Adverbs. 

Rule 2. — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, other adverbs, and some- 
times phrases or entire propositions. 

Observations. 

1. Entire phrases are sometimes used as adverbs. 
Ex. — In general; at least; in any degree. 

2. Many adverbs are formed by annexing hj to adjectives or participles. 
Ex. — Wise, wisely; brave, bravely; exulting, exultingly. 

3. Two negatives, or denying words, used so that one contradicts the other, 
rentier the meaning affirmative. 

Ex. — "I have never said nothing of the kind." Nothing should be anything, 
or, never should be omitted. 

4. When not is followed by only, or by some equivalent word, the negation is 
preserved; as, " I not only never said so, but never thought so." 

Special Rules. 

1. Adverbs should not be used for adjectives. 

Ex. — '"'It looks strangely," is incorrect. The adverb strangely is used for the 
adjective strange. 

2. Adverbs should be so placed that there will be no doubt as to what words they 
modify. 



44 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — "I wish only to order fifty books," should be, "I wish to order only fifty 
books." 

3. Never put an adverb between "to" and its verb; as, "He preferred to not 
sing;" " He preferred not to sing," is correct. 

•i. No, in such expressions as "whether or no," should be not. 

5. Ever so properly expresses indefinite or unlimited degree ; its place should 
not, therefore, be usurped by never so; as, c ' Be he never so wise. Here, never 
should be ever. 

6. Farther refers to distance; further means additional; as, "I can go no farther 
in this direction, till I have further instruction." 

7. Most means in the highest degree; it is often improperly used for almost; as, 
" It is most done." Most should be almost. 

8. Nearly should be applied to quantity, time, or space; and almost to degree; 
as, "It is almost perfect," is better than "It is nearly perfect." 

9. Hence, thence, and whence should never be preceded by from; from hence, 
from thence, from whence, are tautalogical expressions. 

Correct the following : 

1. Every collegian is not a scholar. 2. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. 
3. He doesn't do nothing. 4. This can be done easier. 5. Verbosity is when too 
many words are used. 6. It is impossible to be continually at work. 7. Whether 
he is in fault or no I cannot tell. 8. Do you know from whence this proceeds ? 
9. Neither he nor no one else can do that. 10. He was not able to pay the debt but 
in part. 11. He only read the book, not the notice of it. 12. A wicked man is not 
happy, be he never so hardened in conscience. 13. Snow seldom or ever falls in the 
southern part of Texas. 14. Nothing farther was said about the matter. 15. We 
could proceed no further on our journey. 16. He is some better than he was yester- 
day. 17. This pen does not write good. 18. She dresses suitable to her means. 
19. Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 20. Corn should be generally 
planted in April. 21. The words should be arranged so that the meaning may be 
clear. 22. The Secretary was expected to soon resign. 23. My head feels badly. 
24. She is most sixteen. 25. He reads very bad. 26. He went most there. 27. Most 
everybody says so. 28. I will not go but once. 29. He intended to early apply 
himself to the study of law. 30. I have done like he directed. 31. We remained 
a week at St. Louis and proceeded from thence to Chicago. 



LESSON XXXIV. 



Prepositions. 

Rule 3. — A Preposition shows the relation between two terms, and governs the 
latter term in the objective case. 

Ex. — " The stars retire a t the approach of day." 

Observations. 
1. Two prepositions are sometimes combined and used as one; as, over against; 
according to; from before. 






PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

2. The preposition into expresses relation produced by change from one condi- 
tion or place to another; and in denotes motion or rest, in a condition or place; 
hence, "to walk into the house" and "to walk in the house," have not the same 
meaning. 

3. Between should be used in reference to two things or persons; among when a 
greater number is referred to; as, divide between two — among more than two. 

4. A preposition governing a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is often sepa- 
rated from its object; as, "Whom did you speak of?" It is better, however, to 
place the preposition before the pronoun; as, "Of whom did you speak?" 

5. When two separate prepositions have a joint reference to the same noun, it is 
better to place the noun after the first preposition, and a pronoun representing the 
noun after the second; as, " The second proposal was different from, and allied to, 
the first;" better, "The second proposal was different from the first, and allied 
to it." 

Special Rules. 

1. Do not omit prepositions when they are needed to complete the sense; do not 
use them when not needed. 

2. In the use of prepositions, care should be taken to select the most appro- 
priate. (See page 2S.) 

Correct the following sentences : 

1. The soil is adapted for hemp and tobacco. 2. This book is different to that. 
3. He lives at Boston. 4. What is the matter of him ? 5. He is angry at his 
brother. 6. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. ?. 1 
went there at about noon. 8. Where are you going to? 9. Butter brings twenty 
cents for a pound. 10. Where have you been to? 11. He is worthy our charity. 
12. Egypt is the west side of the Bed Sea. 13. His efforts were not for the great, 
but the lowly. 14. He received dispatches from England and Bussia. 15. The 
Indian differs with the Caucassian in color. 16. This originated from mistake. 
17. He divided his property between his four sons. 18. Whom was this message 
meant for? 19. He plunged into, and swam across, the river. 20. He put a basket 
of apples in his wagon. 21. He is unacquainted with, and hence cannot speak upon, 
the subject. 22. I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting you. 23. It was 
no diminution to his greatness. 24. Habits must be acquired of temperance and 
self-denial. 25. By a deed of trust there will be a less troublesome security than by 
a mortgage. 26. San Francisco is the other side of the Bocky Mountains. 27. Igno- 
rance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 28. Many talented men have 
deserted from the party. 29. Let us consider the works of nature and art, with 
proper attention. 30. She sat next us. 31. That tree is very near to the house. 
32. My business prevented me attending the last meeting of the Society. 33. At 
about what time were you to go? 34. The performance was approved by all who 
saw it. 35. A monument of several centuries old. 36. I never could understand 
what it was useful for. 37. I differ from you in the opinion you just expressed. 



46 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXXY. 



Conjunctions. 
Rule 4. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. 

Observations. 

1. Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and sometimes phrases are used 
as connectives; as, and yet; as well as; on the contrary. 

2. Some of the coordinate conjunctions, as and and but, often introduce sen- 
tences. When so used they indicate that the discourse is to he continued, and 
generally, how what is to be said is regarded in reference to what has been said. 

Ex. — " In sculpture, which depends entirely upon symmetry, there is no compari- 
son between modern works and those of the Greeks. But in the other departments 
of art it is different." 

Special Rules. 

1. When a word or phrase has a common dependence on two connected words or 
phrases, it should make good sense with each. 

Ex. — " There always has and always will be harmony between them," should be, 
" There always has been, and there always will be harmony between them." 

2. Connected or related parts should not be needlessly varied in form. 

Ex. — "He managed the business promptly and with caution," — promptly and 
cautiously — or, with promptness and caution. 

3. The conjunction than should introduce the latter term of a comparison after 
else, other, rather, and all comparatives. "A corrupt government is nothing else 
than a reigning sin." 

4. But else, other, and more, implying something additional, but not different 
in kind, may be followed by besides; as, " He can converse on other topics besides 
politics. 

5. Always select the simplest and most appropriate connective. 

Ex. — " A man of great ability, but for all that he is not successful; " better, 
" and yet he is not successful." 

6. Guard against the use of unnecessary connectives. 

7. Do not omit connectives when their omission would render the connection 
between the parts obscure. 

8. Do not use conjunctions instead of other parts of speech; as, "I will try to 
(not and) do better next time." 

9. Care should be taken that the proper corresponding conjunctions be used 
together; as, "Give me neither riches nor poverty." "I heard nothing either 
strange or interesting." 

Correct the following : 

1. I have always and still do think that labor is honorable. 2. Bread is more 
nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



47 



surrender. 4. I do not deny but he has intelligence. 5. Your work is not as well 
done as it ought to be. 6. She is equally deserving as her sister. 7. No errors are 
so unimportant but they deserve correction. 8. Neither he or his brother is making 
the most of his opportunities. 9. Has he no other motive but that ? 10. They 
think of little else but what is fashionable and popular. 11. There is no doubt but 
that he is well-fitted for the work. 12. I could not buy it nor borrow it. 13. At 
the time that I knew her she was an earnest student. 14. Some useful lessons, and 
which I shall never forget, I learned from him. 15. Have you heard if she has 
arrived ? 10. He may know more, but he does not talk so well as his father did. 
17. Try and do your duty bravely. 18. I feared lest I should not be able to do it. 

Corresponsive Conjunctions : 

as, so; us, as; 

both, and; either, or; 

neither, nor; so, as; 

so, that; such, as; 

such, that; though, yet; 
whether, or. 

Interjections. 
Rule 5. — Interjections have no dependence on other words. 

Observations. 

1. The interjection is frequently prefixed to nouns or pronouns that are 
independent by direct address. 

2. Interjections are generally placed at the beginning of a sentence; but some- 
times between the parts, or even at the end. 

3. Words from other parts of speech, and sometimes phrases when used abruptly 
to express emotion, become interjections. 



LESSON XXXVI. 



Verb and Subject. 

Rule 6. — A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in 
the subjective case; as, "He ivho would control others, must first learn to control 
himself." He is the subject of must learn. Who is the subject of zvould control. 

Apposition. 

Rule 7.—= A noun or a pronoun used as an explanatory modifier, is put by 
apposition in the same case as the word explained. "Hope, the star of life never 
sets." "I, John, saw these things." "It was Moses, he who led the children of 
Israel out of Egypt." 

Rule 8. — A noun or a pronoun used as an attribute, must be in the same case as 
the subject; as, "It was /that did it." "Napoleon was elected emperor." 



48 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 9. — A noun or pronoun used absolutely, or independently, is in the inde- 
pendent case, or the subjective case independent; as, "He being absent, I withdrew 
my opposition." "Plato, thou reasonest well." 

Rule 10. — A noun or a pronoun following infinitives or participles of intransitive 
verbs, must be in the same case with a noun or a pronoun preceding them. 

Ex. — It was thought to be he. "He," following "to be," is in the subjective 
case, because "it," preceding "to be," is in the subjective case. I believed him to 
be an honest man. "Man," following "to be," is in the objective case, because 
"him" is in the objective case, object of "believed." It being her, Ave listened 
attentively. In this sentence, "her" is incorrect. The participle "being" is 
preceded by "it," in the subjective case, and should have the subjective form of 
the following pronoun. It being she, we listened attentively, is correct. Whom do 
men say that I am, should be, Who do men say that I am. 

Rule 11. — A noun or a pronoun is in the objective case when it is the object of a 
verb or a preposition; as, "I saw him of whom you were speaking." 

Special Rules. 

1. When a pronoun which is used as an object, is placed at a distance from 
its governing word, care must be taken to give the objective form to the pronoun; 
as, " They that honor me I will honor," is incorrect: "they" is the object of the 
verb "will honor," and should be used in the objective form — " Them that honor 
me I will honor." 

Correct the folloiuing : 

1. Her and me are studying German together. 2. Him being a diligent student, 
easily mastered the subject. 3. Do you mean Noah Webster, he who wrote the 
dictionary ? 4. May John and me have a vacation to-day? 5. Them that seek 
wisdom, will find it. 6. She is taller than me, but Mary is as tall as her. 7. This 
is between you and I. 8. If you and me can persuade her to act differently I shall 
be glad. 9. It was not me that said it. 10. Whom do you think was present at the 
last meeting? 11. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. 12. Who 
should I meet the. other day but my old friend John. 13. I took that short man to 
be he. 14. They that are diligent will receive a reward. 15. I knew that it was him. 
16. I knew it to be he. 17. Between you and I, it is my opinion that it was her that 
said it. 18. You can find no one better qualified for the office than him. 19. She 
that is idle and mischievous deserves sharp reproof. 20. Who is that child speaking 
to? 21. Who did you send for? 22. Who did you buy it of ? 23. I knew it was 
them. 

2. The object of the active verb, and not of the preposition understood, should 
be made the subject of the passive verb; as, " I was offered the position," should be, 
"The position was offered me." 

( 'orrect the following : 

1. She was paid a high compliment by her teacher. 2. I was presented a fine 
painting. 3. She was promised a better position in the West. 4. We were shown 
a very fine specimen." 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 



LESSON XXXVII. 



Rule 12. — A noun or a pronoun that modifies the meaning of another noun by- 
denoting possession, must be in the possessive case. 

Ex. — "Man's extremity is God's opportunity." " He loved his country." 

Special Rules. 

1. Possessive nouns in apposition, or connected by conjunctions, take the pos- 
sessive sign but once, and that immediately preceding the governing noun ; as, 
"For David, my servant's sake." "America was discovered during Ferdinand and 
Isabella's reign." 

2. If the words do not imply common possession, the sign must be repeated 
before each; as, "He had the surgeon's and the physician's opinion." 

3. A possessive pronoun should not be used unnecessarily. In the sentence, 
" You should apply the principle for your thus solving the problem," the pronoun 
"your" is unnecessary and should be omitted. 

Correct the following : 

1. There is no doubt of the bill passing the House. 2. You will find the books 
at Brown's, the bookseller and stationer's. 3. This pencil is Mary or Ella's. 
4. "Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same? 5. Edward the Second's death was 
a shocking one. ( The death of Edioard the Second.) 6. Ten years interest will 
then be due. 7. Three days grace was given to the debtor. 8. The world's govern- 
ment is not left to chance. 9. Neither the lawyer nor the doctor's aid was ever 
needed in that happy valley. 10. There is nothing to prevent him going. 11. Much 
depends on the pupil composing frequently. 12. Was it your opinion or somebody 
else's ? 13. He disobeyed his father as well as his mother's commands. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 



Pronoun and Antecedent. 

Rule 13. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun 
which it represents, in person, number, and gender. 

Special Rules. 

1. A pronoun should be used in the singular number, to represent a collective 
noun denoting unity of idea; as, " The board of directors should have its powers 
defined and limited by a charter." 

2. A pronoun should be used in the plural number, to represent a collective 
noun denotiug plurality of ideas; as, "The Cabinet seemed to be divided in their 
sentiments." 



50 PRACTICAL FEATURES OE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Do not needlessly insert pronouns. " The river rising very rapidly, it over- 
flowed its banks." Omit "it." 

01)S. — A relative pronoun cannot be the subject of an independent proposition. 

4. The adverb lohere should not be used instead of which and a preposition, 
unless place is the predominant idea. "The grave where our hero was buried," is 
correct; but, " The battle where he was killed," should be, " The battle in which he 
was killed." 

5. A pronoun should not be so used as to cause obscurity in the reference to its 
antecedent or the word which it represents. 

Ex.— "A man has no right to judge another who is a party concerned,*' should 
be, "A man who is a party concerned, has no right to judge another." "Lysias 
promised his father never to abandon his friends," would be better, "Lysias gave 
his father this promise: I will never abandon your friends." 

Obs. — The obscurity caused in the use of pronouns may be prevented by a repe- 
tition of the noun, by changing the form from the indirect statement to the direct, 
and sometimes it will be necessary to recast the sentence. 

6. The relative pronoun and the preposition governing it, should not be omitted 
when they are needed to give proper connection in the sentence; as, "Yonder is the 
place in which I saw him," not, " Yonder is the place I saw him." 

7. Every relative pronoun should have for its antecedent a noun or its equivalent. 
"Be diligent; without which you can never succeed," should be, "Be diligent; for 
without diligence you will never succeed." 

8. Collective nouns, unless they refer to persons directly, require the relative 
which or that to represent them. "He instructed the crowds which surrounded 
him. " Here who would be improper. 

Correct the following : 

1. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 2. This is the friend which I 
love. 3. Each contributed what they could. 4. Man is not such a machine as a 
watch or a clock, which move only as they are moved. 5. Sbe has two sisters, one 
of which I am acquainted with. 6. Every person should try to improve their mind 
and heart. 7. The committee was divided in its opinions. 8. The crowd was so 
great that the judges with difficulty made their way through them. 9. The com- 
mander of the detachment was killed, and the soldiers they have all fled. 10. A 
few remarks as to the manner it should be done, must suffice. 11. They were rich 
once, but are poor now. 12. He sowed the oats, and it is growing. 



LESSON XXXIX. 



Agreement oe Finite Verbs. 

Rule 14. — A finite verb must agree with its subject in person and number; as,. 
< ' The rose fades. " ' ' Eoses fade. " 

Special Rules. 
1. The number of the verb is not controlled by the adjuncts; as, " The derivation 
of these words is uncertain. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

2. Every finite verb should have a separate subject expressed; as, "It is a 
contented mind makes him happy," is incorrect. The verb "makes" should bave 
its subject that expressed. 

Exceptions. — A verb in the imperative mood, its subject being, generally, thou or 
you understood; a verb repeated for the sake of emphasis, or connected to another 
in the same construction; sometimes a verb after the conjunction than. 

Examples. — " Be noble minded." " It is going, going, going." " Flowers bud, 
blossom, wither, and die." "He did no more than was expected of him." 

3. When the subject of the verb is a relative pronoun, the number of the verb 
is determined by the number of the antecedent; as, "That is one of the strongest 
arguments that have ever been presented on any subject." That, the subject of the 
verb, is plural to agree with its antecedent arguments; therefore the verb must have 
the plural form. 

Observations. 

1. A singular subject may have a plural attribute; as, "A dollar is one hundred 
cents." 

2. A plural subject may have a singular subject; as, "Ye are the salt of the 
earth." 

3. When, by transposition, the subject is placed after, and the attribute before 
the verb, care is needed to make the verb agree with the subject, and not with the 
attribute; as, "The salt of the earth are ye." "Ye" being the subject, the verb 
must have the plural form." 

Correct the following : 

1. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 2. That the ship, with all her 
crew, are lost, have been reported. 3. You was not there. (The pronoun you is of 
the plural form and must have a plural verb.) 4. It is his evil companions that 
has led him away. 5. It is thinking strengthens the mind. 6. What have become 
of your good resolutions? 7. The condition of the crops show that the country has 
suffered much. 8. I called but you was not at home. 9. There was more than one 
of us present. 10. You are not the first one that have been deceived in the same 
way. 11. The spirit of our forefathers still animate their descendants. 12. The 
man don't know what he needs. 13. Kb, no, says I. 14. We agree, says they. 
15. There comes the boys. 16. Ten months interest are due. 17. Young's "Night 
Thoughts " are his great work. 



LESSON XL. 



Collective Nouns. 

Rule 15. — A collective noun requires a plural verb when reference is made to 
the individuals composing the collection; but when the collection is referred to as a 
whole, the verb should be singular; as, " The fleet is under orders to sail." " The 
jury were not unanimous." 



52 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the following : 

1. The public is invited to attend. 2. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 
3. The jury has failed to agree. 4. A committee were to examine the accounts. 
5. In France, the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle class makes use of 
wooden shoes. 6. The legislature have adjourned. 7. The House were called to 
order. 8. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure. 9. The corporation is individu- 
ally responsible. 10. Fifty head was drowned. 

Two or more Subjects. 

Rule 16. — Two or more subjects connected by and, when they convey plurality 
of idea, require a verb in the plural; as, "Time and tide wait for no man." "That 
the man is a knave, and that he was present, are well-known facts." 

Obs. — Two or more subjects connected by and, convey, not plurality, but unity 
of idea, in the following instances: 

1. When the connected subjects are used to designate but one individual; as, 
" The distinguished patriot and statesman has retired from public life." 

2. When they name two or more things taken as one whole; as, "Bread and 
milk is excellent food for children. 

3. When singular subjects are preceded by each, every, and no, they are taken 
separately; as, "Every tall tree and every steeple was blown down." "No time 
and no money was spared in the pursuit of happiness." 

In all such cases the verb must be in the singular number. 
The conjunctive is sometimes understood. 



LESSON XLI. 



Singular Subjects. 

Rule 17. — Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, require a verb 
in the singular number; as, " Ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake." 

Special Rules. 

1. Two connected subjects, one taken affirmatively and the other negatively, 
belong to different propositions and the verb must agree with the affirmative 
subject; as, "Virtue, and not riches, constitutes happiness." "He, and not I, is 
chosen." 

2. When two subjects are connected by as well as, save, but, than, as, or as soon 
as, the verb must agree with the first and be understood with the second; as, "Time, 
as well as patience, is needed." " More industrious men than John Carr arc seldom 
seen." 

3. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons or numbers con- 
nected by or or nor, agrees with the subject nearest to it, and is understood with 
the rest, in the person and number required; as, "Neither his style nor his thoughts 
are remarkable." "He or I am wrong." "You or Mary is mistaken." 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

Obs. — When, however, the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is 
generally better to express the verb or its auxiliary with each subject, or to recon- 
struct the sentence; as, "He is wrong, or I am." "You are mistaken, or Mary is." 

4. When the verb separates its subjects, it agrees in number with the subject 
which precedes it, and is to be understood after the rest; as, "John was present, 
and Paul and William." 

5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by 
making - the verb agree with that which stands nearest; as, "Therein consists the 
use, and force, and nature of language." 

G. When the connected subjects are of different persons, the verb must be in the 
plural number, and must agree Avith the first person rather than the second, and 
with the second rather than the third; as, "My sister and I are employed daily in 
our respective occupations." 

Correct the following : 

1. Virtuous effort, and not depraved genius, win the prize. 2. For the conse- 
quences of this transaction he or they is responsible. 3. When sickness, infirmity, 
or reverse of fortune affect us, the sincerity of friendship is tested. 4. After the 
battle the army was scattered through the country. 5. A herd of cattle peacefully 
grazing afford a pleasing sight. 6. The court, at last, have passed sentence on the 
criminal. 7. Generation after generation pass away. 8. Circumstances alters 
cases. 8. A number of persons were there. 10. Have the grammar class recited ? 
11. They, as well as I, am influenced by what he said. 12. No voice nor sound but 
their own echoes were heard in reply. 13. It is a long road has no turning. 14. The 
committee was unable to agree, and it asked to be discharged. 15. The second and 
the third Epistle of John contains each a single chapter. 16. Young's "Night 
Thoughts " are a fine poem. 17. This philosopher and poet were banished from his 
country. 18. The hue and cry of the country pursue him. 19. Every book and 
every paper were in their place. 20. Each day and each hour bring their own 
duties. 21. No time, no money, no labor were spared. 22. Nothing but wailings 
were heard. 23. Such books as this is worth purchasing. 24. Neither poverty nor 
riches is hurtful to him. 25. Neither she nor you studies. 26. The book is one of 
the best that ever was written. 27. So much of ability and merit are seldom found. 
28. Pleasure, and not books, occupy his mind. 29. His food were locusts and wild 
honey. 30. I, and not he, is responsible. 



LESSON XLII. 



Participles. 

Rule 18. — Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or they are governed by 
prepositions. 

Ex. — "Thus encouraged, he lost all fear of not attaining his object." 

Special Rules. 
1. When a transitive participle is used as a noun, the preposition of is required 



54 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to govern the object following; as, "The taking of things by force generally causes 
trouble. " 

2. When a transitive participle is not limited by a preceding word, the preposi- 
tion of should not be used. Thus, in the sentence, " Eeading of good books is 
profitable,"' "of" should be omitted. 

3. The participle should be so used that there will be no doubt as to what is 
modified by it. Thus, in the sentence, " By yielding to temptation our self-respect 
is sacrificed." it is uncertain which is referred to as "yielding to temptation," 
"we understood," or "self-respect." It should be, " By yielding to temptation, we 
sacrifice our self-respect." 

Observations. 

As either the participle or the infinitive may sometimes be used, it is often difficult 
to determine which should have the preference. The following suggestions may be 
of use in making a decision : 

1. After verbs signifying to try or to intend, the infinitive should be used; as, 
" I intend to do it," is better than " I intend doing it." 

2. After verbs that signify to omit, to avoid, or to prevent, the participle should 
generally be used; as, "I omitted doing it." 

3. Also after the verbs of beginning, contriving, or desisting, the participle may 
generally be used, though the infinitive is sometimes more elegant; as, "I began 
studying grammar last year." 

4. Care should be taken not to use a participle when an ordinary noun, a verbal 
noun, the infinitive mood, or a substantive clause or phrase will better express the 
meaning. 

Correct the following : 

1. I neglected taking my customary exercise. 2. I intend staying all day. 3. No 
one likes being in debt. 4. By studying faithfully, one may become learned. 5. By 
the exercising our muscles they become strong. 6. A more careful guarding the 
prisoners would have prevented this unfortunate occurrence. 7. They were discuss- 
ing of the propriety of doing so. 8. By studying of the Scriptures, he became truly 
wise. 9. She came out wringing of her hands. 10. Walking up the street the 
entire building may be seen. 11. You must try studying more diligently. 



LESSON XLIII. 



Infinitives. 

Rule 18. — A verb in the infinitive mood is commonly governed by the preposi- 
tion to, which connects it to the noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, or adverb, on which 
it depends. 

Ex. — "He shows an eagerness to learn." "Do not allow him to go." "He is 
eager to learn." "He seems to understand it." " He does not know how to study." 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

Rule 19. — The infinitive is generally used without the sign to, after the active 
verbs bid, dare, feel, let, see, make, need, and hear; and sometimes after find, have, 
help, behold, mark, observe, and other equivalents of see. 

Ex.—" Bid him go." " I dare do it." " Let her go." " We saw the sun rise." 
"Do not help him learn his lesson." 

Obs. — The preposition is almost always used after the passive form of these verbs, 
and occasionally after the active. 

Ex. — "She was heard to say that it is not true." "You cannot sec to read." 
" I dare you to do it." 



LESSON XLIV. 



The Subjunctive. 

Rule 20. — The subjunctive mood expresses a future contingency, or a mere 
supposition with indefinite time. 

Ex. — " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." " If I tvere in your place, 
I should not do it. " 

Observations. 

1. A verb in this mood is generally preceded by one of the conjunctions, if, 
that, though, lest, or unless. 

2. The conjunction, or word expressing condition, is sometimes omitted ; as, 
•' Had I written I could not have received an answer in time." " Were I in your 
place I would not go." 

3. The distinction between a future contingency, or a contrary fact implied, 
both of which require a verb in the subjunctive, and the conditional statement of a 
fact, which requires a verb in the indicative, is a very nice one. 

Ex. — "If he continue to improve [he may not] he will in time become a fair 
scholar." " If he were wise [as he is not] he would heed your advice. 

" If he continues to improve [and it is assumed that he will] he will soon be well." 
" If he is wise [and it is assumed that he is] he will heed your advice." 

4. The tendency of modern usage is to disregard the distinction, and it is 
possible that in time the form of the subjunctive mood will disappear from our 
language. 

5. When there is any doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive mode 
is required, use the indicative. 

Additional Observations. 
The Verb. 

1. Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form for the past tense and 
perfect participle are called redundant. 

2. Verbs that form no participles and are used in but few of the moods and 



56 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tenses, are called defective. The defective verbs are, the auxiliaries, can, may, 
shall, will, and must, with their variations; also, ought, oeioare, tuts and wit. 

3. A verb that is used only in the third person singular, is called an impersonal 
verb. There are two kinds of impersonal verbs: 

(1.) Those asserting natural phenomena; as, "It rains;" "it storms;" "it grows 
cold." 

(2.) The forms "methinks," "methought." 

4. The neuter pronoun it, in such expressions as "It rains," does not seem to 
represent any noun, but in connection with the verb, expresses merely a condition 
of things. 

5. As the verb ought is never a participle, it cannot properly be used with had 
to form a compound tense. "I had ought" is incorrect. Had should be omitted. 

6. The indirect object of a verb is sometimes made the subject of a verb in the 
passive voice, and the direct object is retained after the verb; as, " He was promised 
a position." This for m of construction was condemned in another part of this tvork. 
as it is regarded improper by most grammarians; but it is an idiom of our language 
established by good usage, both popular and literary. 



LESSON XLV. 



Improper Form of the Verb. 

Care should be taken to choose the right verb and to use its most appropriate 
form. The following suggestions, if heeded, will be of use in making a selection: 

1. Distinguish between transitive and intransive verbs. The verbs lie and lag, 
rise and raise, sit and set, are often incorrectly used. It would be well to commit 
their principal parts to memory. They are: 

Intransitive. Transitive. 

Lie, lay, lain. Lay, laid, laid. 

Rise, rose, risen. Raise, raised, raised. 

Sit, sat, sat. Set, set, set. 

]^ote — Xotice that lay is the past tense of the intransitive verb to lie, and the present tense of 
the transitive verb to lay. 

The following sentences are correct: 

Intransitive, present : We lie down. The book lies on the table. We sit on a 
chair. We rise from our seat. Past : We lay down. The book lay on the table. 
We sat on a chair. We rose from our seat. Present-perfect : The book has lain on 
the table. Past-perfect : The book had lain on the table. 

Transitive, present : I lay ( place) the book orf the table, set a chair aside, and 
raise the window. Perfect: I laid the book on the table, set the chair aside, and 
raised the window. 

The verbs flee and fly, ftoivn and flowed, are often confounded. 

Man flees; birds fly; water flows. 






PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

Man fled; birds flew; water flowed. 

Man lias fled; birds have flown; water has overfloAved. 

2. Progressive Form. 

A progressive form for the passive voice, in the present and past indicative, is 
made by combining the present and past tenses indicative of the verb to he with the 
present passive participle; as, "The house is being built." "The book was being 
printed." This is now superseding the old form, "The house is building." " The 
book is printing." 

3. Auxiliaries. 

Use those auxiliaries which will convey just the meaning intended. Shall in the 
first person simply foretells; as, "I shall go to Chicago next week." Shall in the 
second and third persons, promises, commands, or expresses determination, "You 
shall go." (I promise it.) "You shall go." (I command it.) " He shall go. " 
( I am determined to have it so.) Will in the first person expresses a promise or a 
determination, " Yes, I will go." ( I promise it. ) ' " I will go." ( I am determined 
to go,) Will in the second and third persons simply foretells. " You -will go. " 
"He will go." (It will come to pass.) Should and would are used in a similar 
manner. "I think that I should — you woxdd — hewotdd;" — (where the matter 
is not in my control. ) ' ' You were determined that I shoidd — that you would — that 
he slioidd — ." "I resolved that I tvould — you should — he should — ;" (where I 
have the authority and mean to use it.) In interrogative sentences these auxiliaries 
generally have a meaning nearly the opposite of that in the affirmative. " Shall I 
go?" (Is it your wish or determination?) "Will yon go?" ''Will he go?" (Is 
there a willingness?) " Do you think I should go?" (That I ought to go. ) 

4-. Different Forms. 

Do not use different forms of verbs in the same connection; as, " This had served 
to increase instead of alleviating the difficulty," should be, "This had served to 
increase rather than to alleviate the difficulty. 

5. Improper Omissions and Substdidions. 

Do not omit a verb nor represent it by an auxiliary, when by so doing, you render 
the meaning obscure or the construction improper. "Money is scarce and times 
hard," should be, " Money is scarce and times are hard." " I never have and never 
will assist such a man," should be, " I never have assisted and never will assist such 
a man." 

6. Moods and Tenses. 

Every verb should be used in the mood and tense best adapted to express the 
meaning intended. 

1. When a verb, followed by an infinitive, refers to a future act or circumstance, 
the present, not the perfect, infinitive should be used; as, "I intended to go," [not 
to have gone.~\ "I expected to see you," [not to have seen you.] 

2. The present tense should always be used to express a general principle or a 
universal truth. "We were told that the air has weight," [not had]. "When I 
studied the classics, I observed that many a moral lurked in the mythology of the 
ancients," Lurked should be lurks. 



58 practical features of english grammar. 

Miscellaneous Examples for Correction. 

•1. 

1. He is a different sort of a man. 

2. The highest officer of a State is styled a Governor. 

3. It would take a half day to do it. 

■4. The farm was a long ways from the town. 

5. The first and the last payments are the two in dispute. 

6. Neither the poor nor rich are really happy, 

7. I have had a dull sort of headache all day. 

8. You will never have another such a chance. 

9. I expected some such an answer. 

10. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. 

11. The secretary and treasurer Avere both absent. 

12. He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. 

13. Will you drive them cattle out of the lot? 

1-4. Are either of those four boys worthy of your confidence? 

15. ^ isest men sometimes say least. 

16. The old and new method of writing. 
IT. These kind of apples is not profitable. 

18. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 

19. He has less studies than I. 

20. We rode about five mile an hour. 

21. H bought ten cord of wood. 

22. He acted much wiser than the others. 

23. I bought them books at a very low price. 

24. What a terrible bad cold you have. 

25. We arrived safely. 

26. The oldest of the two boys went to college. 

27. He is one of the most influential and richest men of the city. 

28. Please give me a drink; I am very dry. 

29. She is a new beginner. 

30. The opinion is becoming more universal. 

31. These sort of expressions should be corrected. 

32. Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. 

2 

1. I feared lest I should be late. 

2. I cannot doubt but that my friend will return. 

3. The matter was no sooner proposed, but he withdrew to consider it. 

4. I will try and do better next time. 

5. I do not know as I shall like it. 

6. I do not doubt but what he is honest. 

7. Have you no other proof except this? 

8. Do you think this is so good as that? 

9. I will see if I can go or not. 

10. The book is not so complete as I wished it to be. 

11. Cedar is not so hard but more valuable than oak. 

13. At the time that I saw her she was young and beautiful. 



PBACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

14. This book is very different to that. 

15. They are gone in the house. 

16. The ghiss was broken in pieces. 

17. I was kept to work all day. 

18. It was divided equally between the four boys. 

19. That remark is not worthy your notice. 

20. Who did you vote for? 

21. Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 

22. Did you not expect something more besides this? 

23. What is the matter of him? 

24. I saw him over to the house. ■ 

25. He stays to school late. 

26. I went there at about noon. 

27. Where are you going to? 

28. They admitted of the fact. 

29. Take your book off of the table. 

30. What use is this to him? 

31. He threw himself on to the ground. 

32. They quarrelled among each other. 

33. There is no need for that. 

34. Between you and I, he is not to be trusted. 

35. Which of the books can I find it in? 

36. Allow me to present you with a new pen. 

37. He went to see his friends on horseback. 

3. 

1. Messrs. Long's, Little's, and Lacy's business is prospering. 

2. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 

3. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 
4. . I do not doubt him being sincere. 

5. A diphthong is where two vowels are united in one sound (the union of). 

6. We hauled five cord of wood and four ton of hay in nine hours. 

7. The bill had the cashier, but not the president's signature. 

8. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's and statesman's. 

9. Him and me are of the same age. 

10. I know that it was him. 

11. I knew it to be he. 

12. Him and me went to the same school. 

13. I do not think such persons as him competent to decide that matter. 

14. Who shall we send? Whomsoever will go. 

15. He was offered the control of the entire school. 

16. We will go at once, — him and me. 

17. It was not us that made the noise. 

18. I knew it to be they. 

19. It is a long ways off. 

20. What is the reason of his not having gone to school (that he has not gone). 

21. You do not love her better than me. 

22. There is the same man whom we saw a while ago. 



60 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

23. He was the first pupil who came. 

24. All who ever knew her, spoke well of her. 

25. She is a woman who is never contented. 

26. He joined a crowd who was going down the street. 

27. There is the same boat that came last evening, and which will go away again 

this morning. 

28. The cabinet was distinguished for their wise and vigorous measures'. 

29. Neither of us is willing to give up our claim. 

30. Poverty and wealth have each their own temptations. 

31. Us boys are going to run a race. 

32. Each contributed what we could. 

33. May us girls study together? 

34. You certainly do not mean me. 

35. The way I did it, is this. 

36. I had no idea but what the story was true. 

37. She is as good as him. 

38. It is not to the point, what was said. 

39. Every person should try to improve their own mind and heart. 

40. I do not know but what I will °o. 



4. 

1. I cannot by no means allow you to do this. 

2. Whether you are willing or no, you will have to pay that debt. 

3. It snows most every day. 

4. Directly she comes, I shall go. 

5. Such hats were in fashion about five years since {ago). 

6. Speak slow and distinct. 

7. He is doing fine. 

8. We have not near finished our work. 

0. Every man cannot afford to keep a carriage. 

10. I only recited one lesson during the whole day. 

11. He is thought to be generally honest. 

12. She will be always discontented. 

13. Can you not behave like he does? 

14. Do you know from whence he came? 

15. Tell me whether you will call or no. 

16. Be careful to correctly locate the adverbs in a sentence. 

17. The interest not only had been paid but the greater part of the principal also. 

18. Such prices are only paid in times of great scarcity. 

19. All that we hear, we should not believe. 

20. All their neighbors were not invited. 

21. We can easier go down stairs than up. 

22. She does look beautifully. 

23. The violet smells sweetly. 

24. This example is very easy done. 

25. The fairest flowers sometimes wither the quickest. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

5. 

1. He bid me to study. 

2. Dare be firm. 

3. By the obtaining wisdom you will secure esteem. 

4. By the omitting to attend to my commission he caused great loss. 

5. The question is now discussing. 

6. This was said in hearing of many persons. 

7. An effort is making to release him. 

8. Please excuse my son's absence. 

9. Try and do better next time. 

10. I intended to have been there in time. 

11. We made him to believe it. 

12. He was made believe it. 

13. Will you please answer my letter immediately? 

14. I have known young men spend more in a month than they earned in a year. 

15. He neglected doing his duty. 

16. I preferred staying at home. 

17. It is easier asking questions than answering them. 

18. I was about sending for you when you arrived. 

19. We hoped to have seen you. 

20. To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperately in the pursuit of 

them, is the best way to insure success. 

21. I do not recollect ever having said it. 

22. I would not have let him gone. 

23. Be sure and learn it in time. 

24. He was to finish the work before I came. 

25. It is useless trying. 

6. 

1. I am resolved that I shall do my duty. 

2. Will I go to New Orleans, or not? 

3. I was resolved that I should do my duty. 

4. I will consider it a great favor. 

5. All shall receive their money when the work will have been done. 

6. I would not be surprised to see him there. 

7. That dedication may answer for any book that has, is, or shall be published. 

8. You hadn't ought to waste your time. 

9. He don't know that he hadn't ought to go there. 

10. You had ought to try and learn your lesson more thoroughly. 

11. He repented him of his obstinacy. 

12. He lai-d down a whole hour. 

13. Let that book lay just where it is. 

14. The ship laid at anchor. 

15. Please to set down. 

16. The man flies from his enemies. 

17., The Mississippi river has overflown its banks. 

18. Please to raise up. 

19. Some one has took my book. 



62 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

20. She has sang all the evening. 

21. He begun well, but did not continue as he had began. 

22. Having arose he started out. 

23. I laid down to sleep. 

24. If any member absents himself, he shall pay a fine. 

25. Oh, that I was at my journey's end. 

26. Was I in your place, I should certainly go. 

27. I had rather go than stay. 

28. He said that a tyrant was always a coward. 

29. Was it necessary, I would explain. 

30. If he practices economy, he will do well. 

31. We have and will be your friends. 

32. Since he has done it, I can. 

33. He would have went with us, if we had invited him. 

34. Somebody has broke my pencil. 

35. Go and lay down. 

36. I would do the same thing, if I were him. 

37. The new board of directors have elected their officers. 

38. Was there no difference, there would be no choice. 

39. I think I will return home next week. 

40. I would like to know who said it. 

41. This we will have occasion to illustrate hereafter. 



1. The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions. 

2. The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 

3. The following treatise, with those that accompany it, were written many years 

ago. 

4. Either he or his brother have been very dishonest. 

5. Either you or I are in the way. 

6. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produces thirst. 

7. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

8. If I were in his position, I would not have gone. 

9. The Book of Psalms were written by David. 

10. The spirit and not the letter of the law are what we ought to follow. 

11. What have become of our friends? 

12. Neither of the children are much better. 

13. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 

14. He or I is to go. 

15. The Club meet on Tuesday. 

16. Was he as bad as you think, he would not have done so kind an act. 

17. Every boy and every girl were rewarded according to their merits.. 

18. Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 

19. What's the odds? The odds are the difference. 

20. Practice, and not profession, determine a man's character. 

21. I thought I should have lost it before I reached home. 

22. We were all setting round the room. 

23. He laid down to take a short nap. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

24. He was much effected by the news. 

25. You should have went yourself. 

26. Whatever is worth being done is worth being done well. 

27. We will suffer from cold, unless we are more warmly clothed. 

28. Will I find you at home? You shall find me there. 

29. Would we hear a good lecture if we would go? 

30. I would have been much obliged to him if he had have sent it. 

31. Do you wish me to go? I shall, then. 

32. I am determined that I shall go. 

33. I have decided that you will go. 

34. On the other hand, if they would consult their safety, and turn back, who 

should blame them? 

35. Educating is to develop the faculties of the mind. 

36. He does pursue the course many other have done. 

37. I wish I was at home. 

38. I feared I should have lost it before I reached home. 

39. The book lays on the table. 

40. It has laid there all day. 



Rhetorical Construction- of Sentences. 

The words of a sentence may be chosen in accordance with the requirements of 
good diction, and its parts be so arranged as to violate no rule of grammar, yet the 
expression lack effectiveness. 

An application of the laws of Rhetoric will add to mere correctness and consist- 
ency, such other qualities of style as will give to the expression clearness and force. 

These laws will be considered briefly in the recognized order of their importance. 

1. Persjricuity, or Clearness of Expression. 

The words, carefully chosen, should be so arranged that the thought expressed 
will be understood without difficulty by those to whom it is addressed. 

The general rule for such arrangement is that those parts of a sentence which 
are most closely connected in meaning, should be connected as closely as possible in 
position. This rule is often violated by the improper position of adverbs, and of 
adverbial clauses and adjuncts; also by carelessness in the use of pronouns, both 
personal and relative. These violations were referred to and examples given under 
the rules of Syntax. 

A few additional examples and suggestions will be given here. 

It is said that the proper location of adverbs is one of the most perplexing details 
of composition. Blair says in regard to such adverbs as only, wholly, and at least, 
that in speaking, the tone and emphasis used, generally serves to show their refer- 
ence, and to make the meaning clear, and thus a habit is acquired of throwing them 
in loosely in the course of a period. In writing, there is need of greater accuracy. 

By a change of location in the adverb only, the following sentence will convey 
three different meanings: "Only Ella studied her lesson." No one studied it but 
Ella. "Ella only studied her lesson." She did not recite it." " Ella studied her 
lesson only.'''' She studied nothing else. 

" He left the house very slowly repeating his determination to do as he pleased." 



64 PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRASLUAR. 

This may be understood to mean either that "he left the house very slowly," or 
" repeated his determination slowly." The meaning would be made clear by placing 
the adverb before the verb ' ' left. " 

The ambiguity caused by the improper use of pronouns, may generally be avoided 
by making one object or class of objects singular, and the other plural; by changing 
from indirect to direct discourse ; or, by repeating the antecedent. Sometimes, 
however, it will be necessary to resolve the sentence into two or more short sentences. 
" There was a saloon next door which was a great annoyance." Here it is doubtful 
whether the annoyance is in the existence of the saloon or in its location. The 
ambiguity in such cases may be avoided by repeating the antecedent in another 
form. "There was a saloon next door the existence of which was a great annoy- 
ance." "Mr. Brown told his neighbor that his wheat was much more promising 
than his." Change to direct discourse. "Mr. Brown said to his neighbor, "Your 
wheat is more promising than mine." 

2. Unity. 

Every sentence should have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. The 
sentence may be long and consist of many parts; but the parts should be so closely 
and skillfully combined as to give the impression of one symmetrical whole. 

Some of the rules to be observed in maintaining unity are: 

1. Change the subject as little as possible in the course of the sentence. 

2. I>o not crowd into one sentence things that have so little relation to each 
other that they may properly be expressed in two or more sentences. 

3. Avoid parentheses in the middle of sentences, and never use long ones. 

4. Do not modify a relative clause, which is itself dependent, by another relative 
clause. 

5. The unity of a sentence requires that it be brought to a full and complete 
close; therefore, the addition of supplementary clauses at the end should be avoided. 

3. Strength, or Energy. 

Energy is that quality of Style by which a thought is forcibly and vividly expressed. 
A sentence should be so constructed that the writer's thought shall produce the 
strongest impression of which it is capable. 

Some of the rules which should be observed are: 

1. Use no redundant words, phrases, or clauses. " Every word should present 
a new idea and every clause a new thought." 

Any expression that does not add to the meaning of a sentence is so much dead 
weight and cannot fail to lessen its power. 

Ex. — " There is nothing which is more beneficial to a state than a healthy and 
vigilant public spirit." Omit "there is" and "which." "I went home from the 
lecture full of a great many new ideas. Omit " a great many." 

2. Give particular attention to the proper use of all words of connection and 
transition; such as, but, and, which, whose, where, &c. There is so much variety in 
their use that it is impossible to specify every fault. A few examples and observa- 
tions will show the importance of carefulness in dealing with them. 

(a.) A preposition should not be separated from the noun which it governs. This 
direction, with examples, has been given in another part of the booh. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

(b.) Though conjunctions are used to connect words, yet a closer connection is 
sometimes marked by omitting tliem. When the writer is making a deliberate 
enumeration of particulars which are designed to impress the mind forcibly, the 
conjunction is repeated; as, " Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, 
and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." This repetition of a conjunction is 
called Polysyndeton. 

On the other hand, when the conjunction is omitted, the mind passes more 
quickly from thought; as, "I came, I saw, I conquered." This omission of the 
conjunction is called Asyndeton. 

(c.) The conjunction and is often used unnecessarily in beginning clauses and 
sentences. 

3. Give the principal words of a sentence a conspicuous position, so that they 
may make their full impression. The subject is generally placed at the beginning, 
but sometimes the sense is rendered more forcible by putting it at the end of the 
sentence. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted, the arrangement of words in 
the contrasted clauses should be as nearly alike as possible; as, "John is a better 
writer, but William reads best." This should be, '"John is a better writer, but 
William is a better reader," or, "John writes best, but William reads best." 

5. Arrange the clauses with a view to climax; that is, so that they shall go on 
increasing in importance to the end. A general rule in this connection is, that even 
in short or comparatively short sentences, a weaker assertion, or statement, should 
not come after a stronger one, and the longest member should generally be the last 
one. 

6. Do not close a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any insignificant 
word, except in rare cases when the stress and significance rest chiefly upon some 
such word. 

Ex. — These arguments were without hesitation and with great eagerness laid 
hold of. 

If.. Harmony, or Agreeableness of Sound. 

This is the last and perhaps the least important quality to be considered. Sense 
should never be sacrificed to sound. A few rules to be observed are : 

1. Select the most melodious words. 

2. Avoid all disagreeable combinations of sounds. 

3. Arrange the clauses with a view to ease in pronunciation, and an agreeable 
impression upon the ear. 

4. Attend to the cadence at the close. 

5. Adapt the sound to the sense. 



66 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ILLUSTRATIVE ANALYSIS. 



Napoleon surrendered. 



Palaces shall, crumble. 



student will learn 




flock 



birds /sight. 



produces I corn 



bring I flowers. 



abundance. 



13 



9 prudence 



"were characteristics. 10 



H He 




r» 



' -a 




were sent 






^/ Tnessenger 


<\A 


s& 


who y failed 




./'deliver them 



« 



rj 




poem. 



29 




Talent is power; 




He 



*ho / hesitates 



is lost 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



67 



17 



19 



stood 




13 



Flattery 



succeeds 



80 




be happy 



«! 



'.«' approval ^. 




conscience X 


is impossible. 




1 




32 Plato taught 



Key to Illustrative Analysis. 



1. Napoleon surrendered. 

2. Palaces shall crumble. 

3. The diligent student will learn rapidly. 

4. A flock of small birds was in sight. 

5. This soil produces fine corn in abundance. 

6. x bring x me flowers. 

7. That man is not very wise. 

8. He rose, x reigned, and fell. 

9. Wisdom, X firmness, and prudence were his characteristics. 

10. Talent is power; tact is skill. 

11. He had a good mind, a lively imagination, and a sound judgment. 

12. Napoleon was shrewd and farsighted. 

13. The letter and the parcel were sent by a messenger who failed to deliver them. 

14. He was a good, faithful, and generous man. 

15. He wrote and published a fine poem. 

16. He is lost who hesitates. 

17. A tree, bending with fruit, stood in the garden. 

18. Flattery often succeeds where reason fails entirely. 

19. He left the room very slowly, repeating his determination not to obey. 

20. Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world arise from an irritable 

temper or from improper conduct. 

21. To be happy without the approval of conscience is impossible. 

22. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 



PRACTICAL FEATURES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Explanation of the Illustrative Analysis. 



All the principal words, whether of the sentence itself or of the clauses or phrases 
of the sentence, are to be written on horizontal lines. 

Exception.— When any one of the principal parts is compound. If the subject, 
predicate verb, object, or attribute, be composed of three words, one of the words 
should be placed upon the horizontal line which contains the other principal part or 
parts; the remaining two may be written on slanting lines joined to the end of the 
horizontal line, and extending, one above and the other below it. 

If the subject, object, or attribute, be composed of two words, they may be placed 
on slanting lines joined to the horizontal line. 

If the predicate-verb be composed of two words, the words may be placed on 
broken lines, connected at one end to the horizontal line, and joined together at the 
other end. 

The subject is separated from the predicate verb by a short vertical line extending 
half above and half below the horizontal line. 

The predicate verb is separated from the object, if there be one, by a short vertical 
line above the horizontal line; and from the attribute, if there be one, by a short 
vertical line extending below the horizontal line. 

The modifiers are placed upon slanting lines joined to the under part of the 
words modified. The introductory or connecting word of a phrase is placed upon 
a slanting line, one end of which is joined to the word which it modifies, and the 
other end to a horizontal line upon which is written the principal word of the 
phrase. The principal word of a participial phrase is written on a broken line, one 
part of which is slanting and the other part horizontal. This indicates that the 
participle modifies as an adjective, yet still retains somewhat of the nature of a verb. 

An x denotes a word understood. 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 69 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



The subject of correspondence is one of preeminent importance to young men, 
and especially to young business men. It is the opinion of those whose opportuni- 
ties for forming judgment have been most favorable, that a fairly accurate estimate 
of a man's habits, qualifications and qualities, as a business man, may be determined 
upon no further knowledge of him than may be obtained from familiarity with his 
written communications. If he be slovenly in his business, managing his affairs 
in a loose, unsystematic manner, that peculiarity will be observable in carelessly 
constructed, and awkwardly arranged letters; on the other hand, if he be methodical 
and precise in managing the details of his business, his letters will be characterized 
by accuracy of expression, orderly arrangement and directness in statement. Since, 
then, it appears that habits of carelessness, if once permitted to become settled, may 
pervade a man's entire existence, becoming a part of his very being, and shaping 
his every act, it is of the utmost importance that the correction of them should be 
a matter of constant and earnest solicitude with every young man, as well as with 
his parent or teacher who seeks his abiding good. As a man's correspondence is in 
a measure shaped by the habits previously formed, so may his business habits be 
controlled and improved by cultivating care in the matter of his correspondence. 
If the young man be taught precision and method in preparing his letters, such 
instruction will tend to cultivate in him those habits which are the distinguishing 
qualities of the model business man. 

It is not the province of this work to venture upon a discussion of the aesthetics 
of language to be employed, or of delicate shades of expression, albeit they are 
important and well worthy the attention of every pupil ; but it aims to point out 
the more common errors practiced in ordinaiw correspondence, and to present, in a 
simple manner, such suggestions as will be easily learned and readily practiced, and 
which, if followed, will result at least in creditable appearing letters. 

While the manner of arranging the various parts of a letter is unimportant, when 
the document is considered merely as a medium of communication, certain forms 
of arrangement have by common consent been accepted as reasonable, orderly, and 
in good taste; and since forms which are in harmony with the best usage may as 
readily be employed as others not so justified, and as such accepted forms are easily 
learned, it seems eminently proper that every pupil should be taught and encouraged 
to employ only these. The language used in framing a letter is of much greater 
moment. Unless the statements sought to be made are clearly and pointedly worded, 
misunderstanding is almost certain to result. Too few words are liable to render 
the intended meaning obscure, and too many words often result in confusion and 
uncertainty. Again, improper use of punctuation marks, or their omission, may 
lead to doubt and perplexity, if not to misconstruction and misunderstanding. 

Improper use of capital letters and imjierfect orthography, are blunders per se, 



70 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

indicating carelessness or ignorance, or both, in the writer; yet they are much less 
dangerous than the other imperfections alluded to. 

Materials. 

A good quality of stationery is a matter of great consequence, as, however good a 
penman the writer may be, and however familiar he may be with the best arrangement 
and most felicitous manner of expressing a business letter, his success in attempting 
such a communication will be disappointing unless good paper, pens and ink are used. 

Letter Paper. 

The size of the letter sheet ordinarily used in business, is either what is termed 
note size, being about 5x8 inches, or letter size, about 8 x 10 inches; the note size 
being used for short letters and the latter for those of greater length. So far as 
appearance is concerned, the thickness or weight of the paper is not a matter of so 
much consequence as the surface, which should be hard and smooth. The width of 
the ruling should be governed to some extent by the size of the writing employed. 

Pens. 

The ojjinion of business letter-writers regarding the proper size, elasticity and 
fineness of a business pen are as various as their st3 T les of expression. It is believed, 
however, that for two reasons a pen of medium size, elasticity, and fineness is 
preferable in the hand of the pupil, to one possessing any extreme quality; first, 
because he will become accustomed to its use with less effort; and second, that when 
called upon to use a pen with which he is not familiar the change will be less 
marked, and hence less inconvenience will be experienced. Again, a very fine point 
should be avoided, on account of its liability to catch in the paper, and a very coarse 
one because of the heavy lines it leaves, rendering the page black and unsightly. 

Ink. 

Any ink of a positive, indelible color, that flows from the j)en readily, is suitable 
for business correspondence; but custom, and we think good taste, has dictated that 
black is the most appropriate color. For business use, and especially with a gold 
pen, the commercial fluids are receiving great favor. The chief objection urged 
against them is their corrosive properties, which are such as to destroy, utterly and 
quickly, the flexibility of fine steel pens, and to materially lessen the durability of 
larger ones. Fluids are objectionable for school practice, on account of their lack 
of decided color when first applied, rendering the pupil unable to see with distinct- 
ness the work he is attempting to do. To offset these objections, fluids usually 
possess the indispensable quality in a good ink of extreme fluidity, flowing freely at 
every touch of the pen to the paper. There can be no objection, however, to using 
a black ink, and there is every advantage in it over any pale fluid, providing the ink 
possesses the quality of fluidity and is non-corrosive. The presence of corrosive 
properties in ink may be easily detected by permitting a drop to dry upon the pen. 
If it be destructive to steel the pen will be found coated with rust, while if harm- 
less, the deposit remaining upon the pen may be easily removed, leaving the metal 
untarnished. 



bu8iness correspondence. 71 

Arrangement. 

General usage has prescribed certain elements of arrangement which are common 
to all epistolary communications; these are, first, place and date, a part of which 
is usually printed; second, name and address; third, complimentary address ; 
fourth, body of the letter ; fifth, complimentary closing ; sixth, signature. 
These various parts are usually located in the letter as in the following diagram: 

.., Place and date. 

Name, 

P. 0. Address. 

Complimentary address, — Body of Letter 



Complimentary closing, 

Signature, 

A margin of about one inch should be observed on the left hand side of the 
letter page, and the name of the party addressed should begin at the right of that 
imaginary marginal line. The P. 0. address should begin about three-quarters of 
an inch to the right of the marginal line, on the next line below the name. There 
are three ways of writing a complimentary address, when it precedes the letter, all 
of which are justified by usage. The first is to place it on the next line below the 
P. 0. address, and still another three-fourths of an inch further to the right, as 
shown above; the second is to begin it at the marginal line, as illustrated on page 
72, and the third is to begin it about a half inch to the right of the marginal line, 
which would bring it on a line with the beginning of the paragraphs throughout 
the letter as shown on page 84. The width of the margin on the right is not so 
important as that it be of uniform width, to secure which, the pupil will find it 
necessary to exercise care and devote considerable practice. The margin on a page 
of note paper should be correspondingly narrower. 

A modification of the foregoing form is very common — that of jdacing the 
complimentary address immediately after the date, and the name and address of 
the person to whom the letter is written at the lower left hand corner, as follows: 

Place and Date. 
Complimentary Address, 

Body of letter 



Complimentary Closing. 

Signature. 
Name. 

P. 0. Address. 
A business letter should contain not only the matter which the writer wishes 
to communicate, but such information regarding the writer and the person for 
whom it is intended, that, should it be lost, with the superscription obliterated or 
the envelope destroyed, it could be readily sent to either party. The elements of 
arrangement as given, therefore, become more than a matter of mere form. The 
Place and Date fix beyond question the location of the writer at the time the letter 
was written, and the Signature furnishes the remaining information necessaiy to 
enable the finder to direct it to the person and place from which it emanated; in 
like manner, the Name and the P. 0. Address provide the information required to 



72 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



direct it to the person for whom it was intended, 
cated, mere matters of compliment. 



The other elements are, as indi- 



COMPLIMENTARY TlTLE, ADDRESS AND CLOSING. 

To determine the most appropriate title to be affixed or suffixed to the name of 
the person or firm addressed, as also the proper form of complimentary closing, it 
is necessary to recognize certain conditions. If the letter be one addressed to a firm 
in the ordinary course of business, the Name, P. 0. Address, and Complimentary 

Address should be written thus: 




rt^ZJ^7?2/¥^\tf t 







//sy^/ [ <U^u4^^y -J^- 





Messrs. is sometimes prefixed to the firm name, but as the complimentary address, 
Gentlemen, is but a repetition of Messrs., it seems not only useless, but absurd, to 
use it. Dear Sirs, instead of Gentlemen, while not improper, is not in use by the 
best correspondents, and Gents, should never be used. The complimentary closing 
of such a letter would be governed somewhat by the cordiality of the relations 
existing between the parties. Respectfully yours, or, Yours truly, is always appro- 
priate; Gratefully yours, is proper if the writer feels under special obligations to 
the party addressed; and Your obedient servant, or Faithfully yours, is used when 
the writer is serving in any way the party addressed. 

If the letter be designed for an individual whose age, standing, position, &c, are 
not understood, a proper address would be: 




If Mr. Winslow be a man of prominence, Esq. would not be an inappropriate 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



73 



suffix, when the prefix would of course be omitted; and if he be a public official of 
high rank, usage would justify Hon. Esq., as an honorary title, however, is going 
into disuse. 

The prefix Mrs. should be used in a business letter to a married lady, and Madam 
or Dear Madam, used as a complimentary address; the latter is justified, also, in the 
case of elderly unmarried ladies. 

Probably more uncertainty has been felt regarding the proper complimentary 
address to be used in a letter to a single lady who is a stranger, than upon any other 
point in the arrangement of a business letter. If she be a young lady, Madam 
would manifestly be improper, and since there is no other word in the language just 
suited as a substitute, it is suggested that no complimentary address be employed. 
Write the name and P. 0. address, and proceed with the letter, as: 




If the letter be in reply to one received, it is customary to so state; as, Yours of 
the 4th inst. is at hand; or, We have your esteemed favor of the 4th inst. ; or, We 
beg to acknowledge the receipt of yours of the 4th inst. 

If the letter is to be quite short, it should be begun far enough from the top of 
the page to bring the letter as nearly in the middle of the page as possible. In case 
a printed letter-head is used, the letter, however brief, should begin immediately 
below the heading. 

It has become quite customary, for the sake of brevity, to have printed at the top 
of the sheet a blank form of acknowledgment: as, 

Office of 
THE STANDARD MANUFACTURING CO., 



Replying to yours of 
the..-. --. 



-Zfoucaw/te , ^ft'^u.j /<f„ 



J. B. Warren, Esq., 

Montpelier, Vt., 
Dear Sir ; .' 



Abbreviating the Date. 

The use of st, th, d, and rd. is criticised by some good writers, but since no 
substitute for them is offered, it appears difficult to dispense with them. Yours of 
3 inst., seems incomplete, while Yours of January 3, is permissible. It is claimed 
that 3rd is not a proper abbreviation for third, as by the ordinary method of spell- 



74 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

ing, it does not spell anything. Yet custom justifies these abbreviations, and no 
way is apparent but for every writer to be a "law unto himself" in the matter. 

Punctuating a Letter. 

The rules for the use of punctuation characters given elsewhere, will meet every 
requirement in business letter-writing, with certainty, excepting in the case of the 
complimentary address. Custom, however, has arbitrarily dictated that the marks 
used in such case shall be either a colon, or a comma and dash, with a decided 
preference for the latter. 

Folding a Letter. 

The envelope used in business correspondence is usually No. 5, 6, or 6^, and the 
letter sheet should be folded to a size which will nearly fill the envelope, yet which 
may be inserted with perf ect ease. When a letter sheet of ordinary size, 8 x 10, is 
used, fold it by turning up the bottom of the sheet so that the lower edge shall 
nearly reach the upper edge of the sheet and press down the fold, observing that 
the side edges are exactly together; then draw the right-hand edge toward you and 
fold over to one-third the width of the sheet; then fold the left-hand edge over 
upon the folded right-hand edge so that the width of the letter thus folded shall be 
slightly narrower than the envelope. The following illustration is of a letter sheet 
folded ready to be placed within the envelope: 




A note sheet should be folded over from the bottom to about one-third the length 
of the sheet, and the upper end folded down so that the sheet as then folded will 
be slightly narrower than the envelope used. The sheet and envelope should be 
selected with reference to the former being about a half inch narrower than the 
latter. 

Brevity. 

The subject-matter of a business letter should be stated as briefly as is possible 
consistent with perfect clearness. Short sentences are preferable to long and involved 
ones, and every-day words — monosyllables so far as practicable, — are better than 
uncommon and high-sounding ones. Division of the subject-matter into paragraphs 
whenever the sense will permit, adds to the appearance of the letter. It is advisable 
to read a letter over carefully before mailing, as such review may discover important 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 75 

omissions, or, perhaps, reveal the fact that it better not be mailed at all, but be 
rewritten. 

Your Pull Address Necessary. 

The utmost care should be exercised that the address of the writer be fully given, 
and plainly written, so that no uncertainty may be felt by the party addressed as 
to the proper direction of his reply. The carelessness of many in this regard is 
astonishing. The name of the state is often omitted, when there may be a post- 
office of the same name in every state in the Union, leaving the recipient entirely 
in the dark as to where to direct a reply; sometimes the post-office address is 
omitted altogether, and even the omission of the writer's name is not unusual. 
Failure to receive a reply to a letter, which is charged to the neglect or indifference 
of the person addressed, is often wholly due to the careless negligence of the writer. 

Hasty Replies. 

Many perplexing and provoking matters arise in the correspondence of a business 
house, and a judicious correspondent will be constantly on his guard lest he write 
something in haste, and perhajos in anger, that he would afterward deeply regret. 
It is wise to consider carefully and act deliberately. When constrained to write 
severe things, the letter should be permitted to lie over night for review before mail- 
ing. If this be done, it is probable that the character of the letter will be changed 
radically, or perhaps it will remain unwritten. Many letters which would seem 
ample provocation for a sharp reply, had better go unanswered. This advice is 
especially commended to those seeking trade. Kind words make and hold friends, 
while hasty or vindictive words alienate friends and business. 

Style of Penmanship. 

There are almost as many styles of business writing as there are business writers, 
and there is also great diversity in the various styles. Any writing is adapted to 
business that possesses the qualities of legibility and ease of execution. While time 
is money in business, and writing to conform to business requirements must be 
rapidly done, perfect legibility should never be sacrificed to rapidity. It is of 
course unnecessary that any letter should square with the models of an established 
system of writing, yet every letter should be given its distinguishing character. 
Too large a hand should be avoided, for obvious reasons, yet the writing should be 
large enough to be perfectly legible. The capitals and extended letters should 
occupy about three-fourths of the space between the ruled lines. 3STo shade in the 
writing is preferable to too much, and none is advised if the effort involved to shade 
well retards speed. 

Copying Letters. 

Copies of all letters containing matter of importance should be preserved. A 
fac simile, made with a letter-press, is a most satisfactory means of preserving a 
copy of a letter. If the communication be dictated to a stenographer, the short- 
hand notes may be preserved, and if the communication be a reply to one received, 
the chief points of the reply may be minuted on the letter to which yours is a reply. 



76 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 





i^77^zy / 



64/ 



C^^^g^^-^Sfe^^^?^ 




BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. '77 

Observing the arrangement of the models on the preceding page, the pupil will 
address a letter and an envelope to J. H. Lansing, Boston, Mass., ordering, by 
American Express, ten copies of Watson's Readers. Since the arrangement of the 
body of a letter is to a degree a matter of taste, and as many correspondents make a 
separate line of such an order as the foregoing, it is suggested that the letter be 
written a second time, devoting one line to the order for 10 Watson's Readers. 
Numerals are usually employed instead of writing the number out, as, 10 for ten. 
The pupil will sign his own name to the letter. 

In addressing the envelope, place the name of the person or firm on an imaginary 
line a little below the center, and write it so that the margin at the ends shall be 
as nearly uniform as possible. When a No. 5 or No. 6 envelope is used, write the 
name of the place on an imaginary line three-fourths of an inch below that of the 
person or firm, beginning a little to the left of a medial point between the ends of 
the envelope, being governed somewhat by the length of the name, and the name 
of the state, territory, or country, on another imaginary line three-fourths of an 
inch below the name of the place and still further to the right. If it be regarded 
necessary to add the county in which the post-offce to which the letter is directed is 
situated, or the street and number of the person addressed, it should be placed in 
the lower left-hand corner, or a separate line may be made of it, as indicated on 
page 81. Great care should be exercised to write parts of the address on imaginary 
lines that are exactly parallel Avith each other and with the edges of the envelope. 
Display writing on an envelope is not in good taste, unless the writer be an expert 
penman, and then the plainer the writing be made the better. 

Write a letter and envelope to Eugene Slocum, Maiden, Mass., ordering four Wire 
Tooth Rakes and seven Corn Cultivators. Write the letter in both forms, placing 
the body of the letter in a continuous sentence, and again devoting a line to each 
item in the order. 

Write a. letter and envelope addressed to P. H. Gardner, Dayton, 0., ordering 
two dozen number five ice cream freezers, three dozen number two dairy churns, 
and one-half dozen number one rotary pumps. Write the letter twice, arranging the 
order upon each plan described. Numerals and abbreviations should be employed 
as follows: 

2 doz. No. 5 Ice Cream Freezers. 

3 " "2 Dairy Churns. 
i " "1 Rotary Pumps. 

When the kind of goods ordered is so well understood that no liability to error 
exists, such an order might be still further abbreviated, as: 

2 doz. No. 5 I. C. Freezers. 

3 " " 2 D. Churns. 
i " "IE. Pumps. 

Write a letter to H. J. Whittaker, Detroit, Mich., inquiring as to the financial 
responsibility, and character for integrity, of D. G. Billings, who is doing business 
at 179 Jefferson Ave. 

Write a letter to Myron G. Weaver & Son, Weymouth, N. H., stating that a 
young man named Thomas L. Patterson, has applied to you for a clerkship, and 
has given you their name as reference as to his ability, character, habits, industry, 
etc., and ask their opinion of him. 



78 business correspondence. 

Correcting Exercises. 

Note to the Teacher.— The following illustration presents a plan of marking imperfections 
in letters, that are submitted by the class, and returned after the errors have been marked, which 
is commended as being easily employed and readily comprehended by the pupil. 






' t^T-z^z^^ 



W 



s 







t/iut^kssU^ 



^y^n/ ^A^Oy7<n^?7yi77^^Cr 








Verbiage. 

A very common error with business men who are not pressed for time, lies in the 
inclination to write long letters when shorter ones would meet every requirement. 
While the writer may have abundant time to beat about the busb in making an 
order, in acknowledging a remittance, or in the construction of any kind of a 
business letter, the man at the other end of the line may not be so fortunate, or 
unfortunate. He may find it a positive hardship to be compelled to wade through 
a number of tortuous sentences to get at the gist of a very simple matter, and it is 
quite probable that he will find it difficult to determine the writer's meaning from 
the very fact of the unnecessary multiplication of words. For instance, a simple 
order for flour may be spun out like this: 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 79 

Newport, Ky., Oct. 4, 1888. 
Mr. William Brown, 

Minneapolis, Minn. 
Dear Sir, — My supply of your favorite brand of flour having become consider- 
ably reduced owing to the great popularity it has secured in this community, and 
regarding my stock incomplete indeed without an abundant quantity of it on hand, 
I have determined to send you an order for a few barrels more. My customers 
insist upon having your flour, and will be satisfied with no other make ; hence, 
to avoid losing trade I am compelled to replenish my stock. You will, therefore, 
oblige me by shipping at once by the Chicago and Northwestern Fast Freight, one 
hundred barrels of your XXX Family Flour. 

Your immediate attention to this matter will place me under added obligations 
to yon. 

I remain, my dear sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

C. B. Graham. 

All of the above, to do that which would have been much better done as follows: 

Newport, Ky., Oct. 4, 1888. 
Mr. William Browm, 

Minneapolis, Minn. 
Dear Sir, — Please ship me at once, by fast freight, 100 bbls. XXX Family Flour. 

Kespectfully, 

0. B. Graham. 

It is not only possible but easy to go to the other extreme, and employ so few 
words as to leave too much for inference. Be certain that you have clearly stated 
the mission of the letter, and stop. 

Mixing Business and Friendship. 

In case both parties to a letter are on terms of friendly intimacy, the temptation 
to interject matter which should never appear in a business letter, is very strong. 
The chief objection to be urged against such a dual character in a business letter lies 
in the fact that in looking over the letter file afterward, Avhich is frequently done, 
it becomes necessary to consume time in reading matter which has no relation to 
the information sought. Again, the writer cannot always be sure that the recipient 
will have time during business hours to cull a few necessary particulars from such 
a quantity of foreign matter. While there exists no valid objection to the same 
envelope covering two letters, one a business communication and the other one 
of social character, it is advised that the two features be divorced to the extent of 
occupying separate sheets, at least. 

Shipping Information. 

In ordering goods complete shipping directions should always be given. The 
uncertainty which lack of proper instruction in this regard causes shippers, is very 
annoying, and delay and loss is a common result. In advising of the shipment of 
goods, the name of the transportation company should be given also. 



80 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

As an example of a succinct statement of a business transaction, the following 
letter is submitted. 



















a^n^y- / a^ / J'^^^yy^ 



CZj( -^i^/i<^ -^u^t^y ^uA^yy -^-ynds ^un^s t&Jrntes ^^t^U^iy 





It is suggested that the pupil copy the foregoing letter. 

Write a letter to Myron G. Crouch, Canton, Pa., informing him that you have 
purchased for him a house and lot, as instructed, costing $8,500, leaving $1,500, a 
balance of $10,000 remitted you, to his credit. Express the hope that the house 
may meet his wishes, and that the investment may prove satisfactory. 

The utmost care should be exercised in arrangement, punctuation and penmanship. 

Write a letter to James D. Johnson, Dickinson, Cal., informing him that you 
have effected a lease of his farm for a yearly cash rental of $600, to William B. 



BUSINESS COKKESPOXDENCE. 



81 





Ihw 









>V>^^^^^^/^2^> 



^ 
/Z^^-2- 



82 



BUSINESS COKRESPONDEJSTCE. 



Hovey, whom you knoAv to be a capable and reliable man. Inclose a draft on New 
York for the amount of the first quarter's rent, less your commission of two per cent., 
$12, for transacting the business. Write the draft as well as the letter. Slight 
variations from the forms given below will meet the requirements of the case. 

^sssrf Farmer© Mafional HanR, 



OF EOCHESTEB 




W, P ©/ ^-° tf L ^@' , 4 er °f 



ieloffarA, 






t~?%JS 1 



®??>?Y6£k|.( 




'-^fe^UjZ^ ^sfltyJfytrtt/ /jf /rrp. 






/? rs ^ ' ( 



t^zz^s. L^cia<^£y '^d^^c^y \sUJs &/ ^i^£^zJi<A a<^7^ ^-z^Z^y, 




&rt4>ld/ ^Ltj>C?z/, 



^^Z^A^AfCthy^A^^^ 



Write a letter to Warren L. Morrison, Dover, Miss., inclosing a draft drawn by 
the First National Bank of your place upon the Chemical National Bank of New 
York for $300.00, in settlement of account. Write the draft also, made to your 
oi'der, and indorsed by you to Warren L. Morrison, as illustrated on the following 
page. The advantage in having the draft made in your favor is, that by indorsing 
it payable to Morrison's order he will be required to indorse it also before he can 
either collect or negotiate it, thus bringing your name and his in juxtaposition on 
the draft, showing that he has received from you the amount of money covered by 
the document. In the absence of any other acknowledgment of the remittance, 
this draft, which may be procured within any reasonable time, is sufficient evidence 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



83 



of payment. A draft or check made to bearer, either on its face or by blank indorse- 
ment, should never be transmitted through the mails. 




Dollars. 



// CASHIER. 



Write a letter to J. W. Fleming & Co., 93 Great James Street, Toronto, Ont. . 
inclosing your check on the Fifth National Bank of your place for $961.45, the 
amount of your note of $900 and interest, in their favor. Observe the form of 
complimentary address on page 72. 

There is great diversity of practice among business letter-Avriters in the use of 
capital letters in expressing an amount of money in a letter, as well as in such 
commercial documents as notes, drafts, and checks. It is believed, however, that 
the custom prevailing with those whose opinion and example naturally command 
the greatest respect, is to capitalize every word and write the cents as a fractional 
part of a dollar; as, Nine Hundred Sixty-one and T 4 5 5 o- Dollars. In writing a letter 
it is a common practice, also, to repeat the amount in numerals, in parenthesis, 
after the written amount, thus ($961.50). Write the check as well as the letter. 

Address a letter to Byron N. Sherwood, Geneseo, 111., inclosing your note for 
$596.73, at three months from date, payable at Baldwin & Co.'s Bank. See form 
below : 



4^^- 




Rochester, N. Y.,j»/^^ iss^ 

DATE^^PROMi; 



AFTER DATE-ii<!^PROMISB TO PAY 
TO THE ORDER OF _ ^J^^^Z^^> 




^sa Dollars, 



Value received. 



no. ~2 ^, due 



((Ja^c?/^-- ss^^^^c^ ' V-^J^z<^^c^J^7^y 



84 business correspondence. 

Letters of Indorsement. 

Communications, introducing a business acquaintance, who wishes to open trade 
with the party addressed, should be very guardedly worded. It is very easy to 
incur a moral obligation to perform agreements made by the bearer of such a letter, 
if, indeed, a legal liability be not entailed. If you know the person recpiesting such 
a letter to be financially responsible, a man of irreproachable character and business 
ability, you would of course assume but little risk of any kind; but, as indicated, 
unless he is known to possess such qualities, the letter had better be withheld. 

The following is a safe and proper form: 

Office of 

BILLINGS, MONTGOMEEY & CO., 

Philadelphia, Pa., June 16, 1889. 
James C. Moese & Co., 

Meriden, Ct. 
Gentlemen, — The bearer, Mr. Eobert C. Springer, is ijreparing to engage in a 
general hardware and house furnishing goods trade, in Duluth, Minn., and visits 
you for the purpose of examining your stock of Pressed and Plated Ware. 

Intimate acquaintance with Mr. Springer's energy and business ability, as well as 
knowledge of the excellent field for trade in which he is about to locate, convinces 
us that you will find it profitable to extend him every reasonable courtesy. 

Very respectfully yours, 

Billings, Montgomery & Co., 

Letter of Commendation. 

The utmost -caution should be exercised in the preparation of a letter of recom- 
mendation. While the natural impulse of every kind-hearted person is to write such 
a letter when called upon, especially by one in whom he feels interested, and the 
temptation is often strong to give the virtues of the applicant all the prominence 
warranted by fact, and to ignore his weaknesses, it should be borne in mind that 
such a transaction may have a wider significance than was intended. The applicant 
might be intrusted with duties or responsibilities upon the strength of such a letter 
which the writer did not suppose were within his reach, and the person or firm 
engaging him might be subjected to great inconvenience or loss through his incom- 
petency or dishonesty. Thus the applicant, instead of having been benefited, as 
the writer hoped, would be disgraced, and the writer's character for good judgment, 
and perhaps for veracity, would be gone. 

If the applicant for such a letter merits commendation, it should never be with- 
held; but it should never state more than the most conservative man into whose 
hands it may fall will find amply justified. 

The following engraved letter of recommendation is believed to be in good taste 
and form. The pupil will copy it until its main features have been thoroughly 
impressed upon his mind, exercising great pains in the penmanship, and observing 
carefully its arrangement, punctuation and capitalization. 

You will write, also, the letter of J. B. West & Co. to Mr. C. Keeler, making- 
inquiry regarding Henry Will. Couch the letter in such terms as will make the 
answer of M. C. Keeler appear complete and consistent as a reply. 



BUSINESS COKKESPONDENOE. 85 











■fam^zA u/^r 



^e^^&s^i^^zA- ^CfattAA 



^s/(AA / ^tcA^u ^u^zd/ ^^ny ^^^y ^^n^tn/ ^izuAA 

AA<dAk^tSyr a^z^tA/ ^^?^>2^^^2^A/^^^^^-^iJ A z^5 ; C' ^udUm 
^rn^tzsA-. Schs ^Jt^A/ tZ4Al^zAAl>£m/ a^ 



^Os^zx/ ^n/ 




dt^cfa, OsWtfy &>Jt?v^/ zzAAA ^77/ A?LzAs aAA%zaA ^WS^^S/ 
A& AAAA^rzS ^4ycAA Ai^d^iUim/ 

<d7* 



awis 



■pmzAAA Ai^/AJ ' AAJ^U^AfitAA^S. 




8G BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

Write a letter to John H. White & Co., Newton, la., commending William H. 
Browning, who has been in your service during the last two years, and who has 
proved himself a thoroughly competent book-keeper and correspondent, as well as 
a man of excellent business judgment. He leaves you owing to a change in the 
proprietorship of your business. 

Write a letter to your former employer, Mr. John H. Crane, Lewiston, Me., 
asking for a letter covering your connection with his business, and recpiesting him 
to speak, if possible, particularly of your application to duty, and your ability as a 
salesman. 

Assuming that a reply has been received from Mr. Crane, inclosing a satisfactory 
letter of commendation, you will write a letter to him in reply, expressing your 
appreciation of his kindness. 

You will also write the letter which you are supposed to have received from 
Mr. Crane. 

Open Letters oe Commendation. 

These are such as are intended as passports to all business circles in which the 
writers move. They are usually addressed To the Public; To the Business Com- 
munity, or, To Whom it may Concern; as, 

Office of Hi i' 

BIRMINGHAM ROLLING MILL, 

Birmingham, Ala., June 18, 1889. 
To ivliom it may Concern, — 

This is to certify that the bearer, Mr. John D. Cone, has served this company 
during the last year in the capacity of book-keeper, and that he has been found 
capable, faithful' and honest. He leaves us by the advice of his physician, to 
engage in more active employment. 

Cordially commending him to public favor and individual confidence, we are 

Respectfully, 

Birmingham Rolling Mill, 

By Robt. H. Carman, Sec'y. 

Letter op Introduction. 

In a sample letter of introduction, no words commendatory of the bearer are 
required; but, as such a letter is usually regarded tantamount to an indorsement of 
the person for whom it is written, the greatest caution should be exercised that such 
person be one whom you can safely indorse. 

The following is a proper form of a letter of introduction: 

Waupun, Wis., Oct. 16, 1889. 
Mr. J. 0. Remington, 

Osceola, S. C. 
My Dear Sir, — I have much pleasure in introducing to you the bearer, Mr. 
Lansing C. Warren, who visits your state in the interests of his health. 

Any courtesy you may kindly extend to Mr. Warren I shall regard a personal favor 

to myself. 

Sincerely yours, 

Frank H. Hudson. 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



87 



A letter making a request of any kind should approach the subject as directly 
as possible. State the nature of the request at the outset; and if you have an ex- 
planation to make of circumstances which occasioned the request, let that fol- 
low, and be as brief as possible. 

Write a letter to F. R. Jameson & Co., Boston, ordering 2 pieces Black Dress 
Silk, 3 pieces Ponson Silk, 2 pieces Black Dress Velvet, 1 piece Black Trimming 
Velvet, 2 pieces Black Satin, 1 piece Teillard Silk, and 2 pieces C. L. Gingham. 

Request that the goods be shipped by earliest Express. The greatest care should 
be taken that the order is correctly made. 

The following invoice of goods ordered of F. R. Jameson & Co., has been 
received, and you are requested to copy it, exercising the utmost care in penman- 
ship, figures, and arrangement: 



0^^^^(^^^^JY^^. 



aJd^ot^US/S, 









^fa. 



/ // 

J // 






, f'jz', r'4^ y; <*- £d-r-% =2 *r 




cT(,3, 


6J 




//O 


ff 




7 6 J 


7* 




7<* 


cTO 




3/4 


J/4 




^ZS'd 


6<f 




cf 


jf 


£/// 6 







2,<? 



It is not customary for a letter to accompany an invoice unless some deviation 
has been made from the order. Assuming that the Ponson Silk, included in the 
order, is of a little better grade than you have purchased before, and costs twenty- 
five cents. more per yard, you will write a letter to accompany the invoice, explaining 
these facts, and expressing the hope that the goods will prove satisfactory. The 
letter should be signed F. R. Jameson & Co. 

Assume that you are in the book and stationery business in Milwaukee, Wis., and 
that you wish to order from Ingham, Black & Co., New York, 24 Robinson's 
Practical Arithmetics, list price 75c; 12 Swinton's Fourth Readers, list $1.25; 
6 Webster's High School Dictionary's, list $2.50; and 12 gross No. 1 Pens, list 



88 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



11.10. You receive a discount of 10 and 5 per cent, from the list prices. You will 
please write the order, and also make the invoice. 

Ingham, Black & Co. send you a statement of account of above invoice, of which 
the following is a copy: 

New York. July 1, 1889. 
Messrs.... 



In cLGGcrwrit with INGHAM, BLACK & CO., (Dr. 

EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS. 



Terms, 30 days. 



18 
June 



89 



To JIdse. , per Invoice, 






s 1 

1 « 
i I- 



52 



33 



Write a letter to Ingham, Black & Co., inclosing your check on Third National 
Bank for the amount of the foregoing statement. See form of check on page 83. 
Acknowledge in the letter the receipt of a circular describing their Silverine Pen, 
and inquire as to its merits compared with the Xo. 1. 

You receive a letter from Ingham, Black & Co., inclosing the following acknowl- 
edgement, and explaining that the Silverine Pen is somewhat more flexible than the 
No. 1, and that is regarded more durable, as it is less susceptible to the corrosive 
properties of ink. Write the letter of Ingham, Black & Co. 



BUSINESS COUKESPONDENCK 89 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 



INGHAM, BLACK & CO. 



PUBLISHERS OF 



Stmidapd Sthavl Svxt Sookb, 



Wew York, ^Jlu'/L £, 188& 



JDear Sir 9 — 

Your favor of the 3i-g/ is received? with 
enclosure as stated, *€r*fttM,-Ju'v- a.*?^ /ioo Dollars? 

for which accept our thanks. 

Yours respectfully 9 

INGHAM, BLACK & CO. 



$ c£f J J. 



m* w. 



REMARKS 



